France–United Kingdom relations

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France–United Kingdom relations
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France
Diplomatic mission
Embassy of the United Kingdom, Paris Embassy of France, London
Envoy
Ambassador Menna Rawlings Ambassador Hélène Tréheux-Duchêne
Map including French and British overseas territories. The French Republic & The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.svg
Map including French and British overseas territories.
Maritime boundaries between UK and France in Europe-fr.svg
Maritime boundaries between UK and France in Antilles-fr.svg
Maritime boundaries between UK and France in Pacific Ocean-fr.svg
Maritime borders between the two countries, in Europe, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Ocean.

The historical ties between France and the United Kingdom, and the countries preceding them, are long and complex, including conquest, wars, and alliances at various points in history. The Roman era saw both areas largely conquered by Rome, whose fortifications largely remain in both countries to this day. The Norman conquest of England in 1066, followed by the long domination of the Plantagenet dynasty of French origin, decisively shaped the English language and led to early conflict between the two nations.

Contents

Throughout the Middle Ages and into the Early Modern Period, France and England were often bitter rivals, with both nations' monarchs claiming control over France and France routinely allying against England with their other rival Scotland until the Union of the Crowns. The historical rivalry between the two nations was seeded in the Capetian-Plantagenet rivalry over the French holdings of the Plantagenets in France. After the French victory in the Hundred Years' War, England would never again establish a foothold in French territory.

Rivalry continued with many Anglo-French wars. The last major conflict between the two was the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1793–1815), in which coalitions of European powers, financed by London, fought a series of wars against the French First Republic, the First French Empire and its client states, culminating in the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. For several decades the peace was uneasy with fear of French invasion in 1859 and during the later rivalry for African colonies. Nevertheless, peace has generally prevailed since Napoleon I, and friendly ties between the two were formally established with the 1904 Entente Cordiale, and the British and French were allied against Germany in both World War I and World War II; in the latter conflict, British armies helped to liberate occupied France from Nazi Germany.

France and the UK were key partners in the West during the Cold War, consistently supporting liberal democracy and capitalism. They were founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defence alliance and are permanent members of the UN Security Council. France has been a member of the European Union (EU), and its predecessors, since creation as the European Economic Community in 1957. In the 1960s, relations deteriorated due to French President Charles de Gaulle's concerns over the special relationship between the UK and the United States. He repeatedly vetoed British entry into the European Communities, the predecessor to the EU, and withdrew France from NATO integrated command, arguing the alliance was too heavily dominated by the United States.

In 1973, following de Gaulle's death, the UK entered the European Communities and in 2009 France returned to an active role in NATO under the presidency of Nicolas Sarkozy. Since then, the two countries have experienced a close relationship, especially on defence and foreign policy issues; however they disagreed on several other matters, most notably the direction of the European Union. [1] The United Kingdom left the European Union on 31 January 2020, following the referendum held on 23 June 2016, on Brexit. [2] Relations have since deteriorated, with disagreements surrounding Brexit and the English Channel migrant crisis. [3] [4] [5]

In the 21st century, France and Britain, though they have chosen different paths and share many overlooked similarities (with roughly the same population, economic size, commitment to democracy, diplomatic clout, and as heads of former global empires. [6] [7] [8] [9] ), are often still referred to as "historic rivals", [10] with a perceived ever-lasting competition. [11] French author José-Alain Fralon characterised the relationship between the countries by describing the British as "our most dear enemies".

It is estimated that about 350,000 French people live in the UK, with approximately 200,000 Britons living in France. [12] Both countries are members of the Council of Europe and NATO. France is a European Union member and the United Kingdom is a former European Union member.

History

British Prime Minister Keir Starmer with French President Emmanuel Macron in Paris, March 2025 Ukraine conference in Paris 2025-02-17-14-56-D.jpg
British Prime Minister Keir Starmer with French President Emmanuel Macron in Paris, March 2025

1945–1956

The UK and France became close in the aftermath of World War II, as both feared the Americans would withdraw from Europe leaving them vulnerable to the Soviet Union's expanding communist bloc. The UK was successful in strongly advocating that France be given a zone of occupied Germany. Both states were amongst the five Permanent Members of the new UN Security Council, where they commonly collaborated. However, France was bitter when the United States and Britain refused to share atomic secrets with it. An American operation to use air strikes (including the potential use of tactical nuclear weapons) during the climax of the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954 was cancelled because of opposition by the British. [13] [14] The upshot was France developed its own nuclear weapons and delivery systems. [15]

The Cold War began in 1947, as the United States, with strong British support, announced the Truman Doctrine to contain Communist expansion and provided military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey. Despite its large pro-Soviet Communist Party, France joined the Allies. The first move was the Franco-British alliance realised in the Dunkirk Treaty in March 1947. [16]

Suez Crisis

In 1956, the Suez Canal, previously owned by an Anglo-French company, was nationalised by the Egyptian government. The British and the French were both strongly committed to taking the canal back by force. [17] President Eisenhower and the Soviet Union demanded there be no invasion and both imposed heavy pressure to reverse the invasion when it came. The relations between Britain and France were not entirely harmonious, as the French did not inform the British about the involvement of Israel until very close to the commencement of military operations. [18] The failure in Suez convinced Paris it needed its own nuclear weapons. [19] [20]

Common Market

Immediately after the Suez crisis Anglo-French relations started to sour again, and only since the last decades of the 20th century have they improved towards the peak they achieved between 1900 and 1940.

Shortly after 1956, France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg formed what would become the European Economic Community and later the European Union, but rejected British requests for membership. In particular, President Charles de Gaulle's attempts to exclude the British from European affairs during France's early Fifth Republic are now seen by many in Britain as a betrayal of the strong bond between the countries, and Anthony Eden's exclusion of France from the Commonwealth is seen in a similar light in France. The French partly feared that were the British to join the EEC they would attempt to dominate it.

Over the years, the UK and France have often taken diverging courses within the European Community. British policy has favoured an expansion of the Community and free trade while France has advocated a closer political union and restricting membership of the Community to a core of Western European states.

De Gaulle

In 1958, with France mired in a seemingly unwinnable war in Algeria, Charles de Gaulle returned to power in France. He created the Fifth French Republic, ending the post-war parliamentary system and replacing it with a strong Presidency, which became dominated by his followers—the Gaullists. De Gaulle made ambitious changes to French foreign policy—first ending the war in Algeria, and then withdrawing France from the NATO command structure. The latter move was primarily symbolic, but NATO headquarters moved to Brussels and French generals had a much lesser role. [21] [22]

French policy blocking British entry into the European Economic Community (EEC) was primarily motivated by political rather than economic considerations. In 1967, as in 1961–63, de Gaulle was determined to preserve France's dominance within the EEC, which was the foundation of the nation's international stature. His policy was to preserve the Community of Six while barring Britain. Although France succeeded in excluding Britain in the short term, in the longer term the French had to adjust their stance on enlargement in order to retain influence. De Gaulle feared that letting Britain into the European Community would open the way for "Anglo-Saxon" (i.e., US and UK) influence to overwhelm the France-West Germany coalition that was now dominant. On 14 January 1963, de Gaulle announced that France would veto Britain's entry into the Common Market. [23]

Since 1969

President Nicolas Sarkozy (2007-2012) tried to establish a closer relationship with the UK, than existed under his predecessors Jacques Chirac and Francois Mitterrand. Nicolas Sarkozy MEDEF.jpg
President Nicolas Sarkozy (2007–2012) tried to establish a closer relationship with the UK, than existed under his predecessors Jacques Chirac and François Mitterrand.

When de Gaulle resigned in 1969, a new French government under Georges Pompidou was prepared to open a more friendly dialogue with Britain. He felt that in the economic crises of the 1970s, Europe needed Britain. Pompidou welcomed British membership of the EEC, opening the way for the United Kingdom to join it in 1973. [25]

The two countries' relationship was strained significantly in the lead-up to the 2003 War in Iraq. Britain and its American ally strongly advocated the use of force to remove Saddam Hussein, while France (with China, Russia, and other nations) strongly opposed such action, with French President Jacques Chirac threatening to veto any resolution proposed to the UN Security Council. However, despite such differences Chirac and then British Prime Minister Tony Blair maintained a fairly close relationship during their years in office even after the Iraq War started. [26] Both states asserted the importance of the Entente Cordiale alliance, and the role it had played during the 20th century.

Sarkozy presidency

Following his election in 2007, President Nicolas Sarkozy attempted to forge closer relations between France and the United Kingdom: in March 2008, Prime Minister Gordon Brown said that "there has never been greater cooperation between France and Britain as there is now". [27] Sarkozy also urged both countries to "overcome our long-standing rivalries and build together a future that will be stronger because we will be together". [28] He also said "If we want to change Europe my dear British friends—and we Frenchmen do wish to change Europe—we need you inside Europe to help us do so, not standing on the outside." [29] On 26 March 2008, Sarkozy had the privilege of giving a speech to both British Houses of Parliament, where he called for a "brotherhood" between the two countries [30] and stated that "France will never forget Britain's war sacrifice" during World War II. [31]

In March 2008, Sarkozy made a state visit to Britain, promising closer cooperation between the two countries' governments in the future. [32]

Hollande presidency

Cameron and Hollande at the G8 summit in 2012 G8 Summit working session on global and economic issues May 19, 2012.jpg
Cameron and Hollande at the G8 summit in 2012

The final months towards the end of François Hollande's tenure as president saw the UK vote to leave the EU. His response to the result was "I profoundly regret this decision for the United Kingdom and for Europe, but the choice is theirs and we have to respect it." [33]

The then-Economy Minister and current President Emmanuel Macron accused the UK of taking the EU "hostage" with a referendum called to solve a domestic political problem of eurosceptics and that "the failure of the British government [has opened up] the possibility of the crumbling of Europe." [34]

In contrast, the vote was welcomed by Eurosceptic political leaders and presidential candidates Marine Le Pen and Nicolas Dupont-Aignan as a victory for "freedom". [35] [36]

Macron presidency

King Charles III with Macron on a state visit to France, 2023 King Charles III and Emmanuel Macron at British Embassy Paris (cropped).jpg
King Charles III with Macron on a state visit to France, 2023

In the aftermath of Brexit, fishing disputes, notably the 2021 Jersey dispute, have caused turbulence in relations between the two countries. [37]

In May 2021, France threatened to cut off electricity to the British Channel Island of Jersey in a fight over post-Brexit fishing rights. [38] [39]

In August 2021, Tensions emerged between the countries after the announcement of the AUKUS agreement between the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia. [40]

In October 2021, the UK Foreign Office summoned the French ambassador over "threats" made by French officials against Jersey. [41] In November, France threatened to ban UK fishing vessels from French ports. [42]

In November 2021, relations became more stagnant after the French Foreign Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian claimed that British Prime Minister Boris Johnson is a "populist who uses all elements at his disposal to blame others for problems he faces internally". [43] A few days later, after 27 migrants drowned in the English Channel, Prime Minister Boris Johnson tweeted a letter that was sent to French President Emmanuel Macron which had irritated him due to the letter being made public on Twitter. [44] The French Interior Minister Gérald Darmanin cancelled a proposed meeting with British Home Secretary Priti Patel over the migrant crossings due to the row over the letter. [45]

On 6 March 2022, French Interior Minister Gerald Darmanin urged Britain to do more to assist Ukrainian refugees trapped in the French port of Calais, claiming that British officials were turning them away owing to a lack of permits or papers. [46]

On 25 August 2022, Liz Truss, the expected candidate for Prime Minister from the Conservative Party was asked if she sees Macron as a friend or a rival. Truss hesitated and replied that "The jury's out. But if I become prime minister, I'll judge him on deeds, not words". This answer brought a sharp reaction on behalf of the Labour Party when David Lammy, who serves as the party's foreign affairs spokesman, said in response that "the fact that she chose to unnecessarily insult one of our closest allies shows a lack of judgement, and that lack of capacity is a terrible and worrying thing." Macron himself responded that "the British people, Britain itself, are a friendly, strong nation and our ally, regardless of the identity of its leaders, and sometimes despite its leaders or the small mistakes they make in their attempt to impress the audience". He added: "If we, France and Britain, are unable to say whether we are friends or enemies - and the term is not neutral - then we are on the way to serious problems. If I were to be asked this question, I would not hesitate for a second - Britain is France's friend." [47]

A bilateral summit in March 2023 between President Emmanuel Macron and Prime Minister Rishi Sunak marked a shift towards collaboration on energy, migration, and security. [48]

The election of Prime Minister Keir Starmer in 2024 further strengthened ties, with both governments issuing a joint statement reaffirming commitments to European security and climate action.

Symbolic events, such as King Charles III's 2023 state visit to France have further reinforced bilateral ties. [49]

Defence cooperation

The two nations have a post WWII record of working together on international security measures, as was seen in the Suez Crisis and Falklands War. In her 2020 book, Johns Hopkins University SAIS political scientist Alice Pannier writes that there is a growing "special relationship" between France and the UK in terms of defence cooperation. [50]

Signing of the defence co-operation treaties Cameron and Sarkozy.jpg
Signing of the defence co-operation treaties

On 2 November 2010, France and the UK signed two defence co-operation treaties. They provide for the sharing of aircraft carriers, a 10,000-strong joint reaction force, a common nuclear simulation centre in France, a common nuclear research centre in the UK, sharing air-refuelling tankers and joint training. [51] [52]

Their post-colonial entanglements have given them a more outward focus than the other countries of Europe, leading them to work together on issues such as the Libyan Civil War. [53]

Commerce

France is the United Kingdom's third-biggest export market after the United States and Germany. Exports to France rose 14.3% from £16.542 billion in 2010 to £18.905 billion in 2011, overtaking exports to the Netherlands. Over the same period, French exports to Britain rose 5.5% from £18.133 billion to £19.138 billion. [54]

The British Foreign & Commonwealth Office estimates that 19.3 million British citizens, roughly a third of the entire population, visit France each year. [55] In 2018, they reported 13 million trips. [56] In 2012, the French were the biggest visitors to the UK (12%, 3,787,000) and the second-biggest tourist spenders in Britain (8%, £1.513 billion). [57]

Education

The Entente Cordiale Scholarship scheme is a selective Franco-British scholarship scheme which was announced on 30 October 1995 by British Prime Minister John Major and French President Jacques Chirac at an Anglo-French summit in London. [58]

It provides funding for British and French students to study for one academic year on the other side of the Channel. The scheme is administered by the French embassy in London for British students, [59] and by the British Council in France and the UK embassy in Paris for French students. [60] [61] Funding is provided by the private sector and foundations. The scheme aims to favour mutual understanding and to promote exchanges between the British and French leaders of tomorrow.

The programme was initiated by Sir Christopher Mallaby, British ambassador to France between 1993 and 1996. [62]

The sciences

An Air France Concorde. The supersonic commercial aircraft was developed jointly by the United Kingdom and France. ConcordeCDG.jpg
An Air France Concorde. The supersonic commercial aircraft was developed jointly by the United Kingdom and France.

The Concorde supersonic commercial aircraft was developed under an international treaty between the UK and France in 1962, and commenced flying in 1969. It was a technological success but a financial disaster and was closed down after a runway crash in 2000 and fully ended flights in 2003. [63]

Cultural relations

Over the centuries, French and British art and culture have been heavily influenced by each other. [64] During the 19th century, numerous French artists moved to the United Kingdom, which many of them settling in London. These artists included Charles-François Daubigny, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, James Tissot and Alfred Sisley. This exodus would prove to have a significant influence on the development of impressionism in Britain. [65]

Sexual euphemisms with no link to France, such as French kissing , or French letter for a condom, are used in British English slang. [66] While in French slang, the term le vice anglais refers to either BDSM or homosexuality. [67] French classical music has always been popular in Britain. British popular music is in turn popular in France. English literature, in particular the works of Agatha Christie and William Shakespeare, has been immensely popular in France. French artist Eugène Delacroix based many of his paintings on scenes from Shakespeare's plays. In turn, French writers such as Molière, Voltaire and Victor Hugo have been translated numerous times into English. In general, most of the more popular books in either language are translated into the other. The same can be applied for adaptations of said books; some of which have achieved considerable critical and commercial success in both territories. For example, the West End production of the musical adaptation of Hugo’s novel, Les Misérables premiered in 1985 and is still running to this very day.[ citation needed ]

Language

The Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom contains two mottos in French: Honi soit qui mal y pense (Shame on whoever thinks ill of it) and Dieu et mon droit (God and my right). Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (2022).svg
The Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom contains two mottos in French: Honi soit qui mal y pense (Shame on whoever thinks ill of it) and Dieu et mon droit (God and my right).

The first foreign language most commonly taught in schools in Britain is French, and the first foreign language most commonly taught in schools in France is English; those are also the languages perceived as "most useful to learn" in both countries. Queen Elizabeth II of the UK was fluent in French and did not require an interpreter when travelling to French-language countries. [68] [69] French is a substantial minority language and immigrant language in the United Kingdom, with over 100,000 French-born people in the UK. According to a 2006 European Commission report, 23% of UK residents are able to carry on a conversation in French and 39% of French residents are able to carry on a conversation in English. [70] French is also an official language in both Jersey and Guernsey. Both use French to some degree, mostly in an administrative or ceremonial capacity. Jersey Legal French is the standardised variety used in Jersey. However, Norman (in its local forms, Guernésiais and Jèrriais) is the historical vernacular of the islands.

Both languages have influenced each other throughout the years. According to different sources, more than 50% of all English words have a French origin, and today many French expressions have entered the English language as well. [71] The term Franglais, a portmanteau combining the French words "français" and "anglais", refers to the combination of French and English (mostly in the UK) or the use of English words and nouns of Anglo-Saxon roots in French (in France).

Modern and Middle English reflect a mixture of Oïl and Old English lexicons after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, when a Norman-speaking aristocracy took control of a population whose mother tongue was Germanic in origin. Due to the intertwined histories of England and continental possessions of the English Crown, many formal and legal words in Modern English have French roots. For example, buy and sell are of Germanic origin, while purchase and vend are from Old French.

Sports

French football manager Arsene Wenger has won three Premier League titles with Arsenal F.C. using teams with significant French players. Arsene-Wenger.jpg
French football manager Arsène Wenger has won three Premier League titles with Arsenal F.C. using teams with significant French players.

In the sport of rugby union there is a rivalry between England and France. Both countries compete in the Six Nations Championship and the Rugby World Cup. England has the edge in both tournaments, having the most outright wins in the Six Nations (and its previous version the Five Nations), and most recently knocking the French team out of the 2003 and 2007 World Cups at the semi-final stage, although France knocked England out of the 2011 Rugby World Cup with a convincing score in their quarter final match. Though rugby is originally a British sport, French rugby has developed to such an extent that the English and French teams are now stiff competitors, with neither side greatly superior to the other. While English influences spread rugby union at an early stage to Scotland, Wales and Ireland, as well as the Commonwealth realms, French influence spread the sport outside the commonwealth, to Italy, Argentina, Romania and Georgia.

The influence of French players and coaches on British football has been increasing in recent years and is often cited as an example of Anglo-French cooperation. In particular the Premier League club Arsenal has become known for its Anglo-French connection due to a heavy influx of French players since the advent of French manager Arsène Wenger in 1996. In March 2008 their Emirates stadium was chosen as the venue for a meeting during a state visit by the French President precisely for this reason. [72]

Many people blamed the then French President Jacques Chirac for contributing to Paris' loss to London in its bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics after he made derogatory remarks about British cuisine and saying that "only Finnish food is worse". The IOC committee which would ultimately decide to give the games to London (by four votes) had two members from Finland. [73]

Transport

Ferries

The busiest seaway in the world, [74] the English Channel, connects ports in Great Britain such as Dover, Newhaven, Poole, Weymouth, Portsmouth and Plymouth to ports such as Roscoff, Calais, Boulogne, Dunkerque, Dieppe, Cherbourg-Octeville, Caen, St Malo and Le Havre in mainland France. Companies such as Brittany Ferries, P&O Ferries, DFDS Seaways and LD Lines operate ferry services across the Channel.

In addition, there are ferries across the Anguilla Channel between Blowing Point, Anguilla (a British Overseas Territory) and Marigot, Saint Martin (an overseas collectivity of France). [75]

Channel Tunnel

Since 1994, the Channel Tunnel (French entrance pictured) has provided a direct rail link between the United Kingdom and France. TGV TMST 3011-2 - Sortie Tunnel sous la Manche a Coquelles.jpg
Since 1994, the Channel Tunnel (French entrance pictured) has provided a direct rail link between the United Kingdom and France.

The Channel Tunnel (French : Le tunnel sous la Manche; also referred to as the Chunnel) [76] [77] is a 50.5-kilometre (31.4 mi) undersea rail tunnel (linking Folkestone, Kent, in the United Kingdom with Coquelles, Pas-de-Calais, near the city of Calais in northern France) beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover. Ideas for a cross-Channel fixed link appeared as early as 1802, [78] [79] but British political and press pressure over compromised national security stalled attempts to construct a tunnel. [80] The eventual successful project, organised by Eurotunnel, began construction in 1988 and was opened by British Queen Elizabeth II and French President François Mitterrand in a ceremony held in Calais on 6 May 1994. The same year the American Society of Civil Engineers elected the Channel Tunnel as one of the seven modern Wonders of the World. [81]

Flights

11,675,910 passengers in 2008 travelled on flights between the United Kingdom and France. [82]

Twin cities and towns

France has the most twin cities and towns in the United Kingdom.[ citation needed ]

There are lists of twinnings (including those to towns in other countries) at List of twin towns and sister cities in France and at List of twin towns and sister cities in the United Kingdom.

Resident diplomatic missions

See also

References

  1. ↑ Britain and France: the impossible, indispensable relationship , The Economist , 1 Dec 2011
  2. ↑ "The UK's EU referendum: All you need to know – BBC News". BBC News. 21 May 2015. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  3. ↑ "The state of France's relationship with Britain". The Economist. 27 November 2021.
  4. ↑ "'Total loss of confidence': Franco-British relations plumb new depths". The Guardian. 8 October 2021.
  5. ↑ Manning, David (3 December 2021). "Britain needs to reset relations with France — here's how" . Financial Times. Archived from the original on 11 December 2022.
  6. ↑ France is becoming the new Britain, The Financial Times , March 2, 2023: "The countries are twins: two absurdly over-centralised former empires of 67mn people, forever struggling with deindustrialisation, where the past overhangs the present like a shroud."
  7. ↑ Why Britain and France Hate Each Other, The Atlantic , September 24, 2021: "[...] far from being diametrically opposed, France and Britain are more similar than perhaps any other two countries on Earth. Not only in terms of population, wealth, imperial past, global reach, and democratic tradition, but the deeper stuff too: the sense of exceptionalism, fear of decline, instinct for national independence, desire for respect, and angst over the growing power of others, whether that be the United States, Germany, or China. London and Paris may have chosen different strategies—and there is nothing to say that both are equally meritorious—but the parallels between these two nations are obvious."
  8. ↑ 'Whereas the French always believe they are sliding into some catastrophe, the English are complacent', Le Monde , July 29, 2022: "On the face of it, the UK and France are twins: 67 million inhabitants each, absurdly over-centralised, with almost identical GDP and lost imperial grandeur. Yet the two countries have taken different paths."
  9. ↑ The real special relationship – Britain and France have more in common than either does with a third country, The Financial Times , May 12, 2023: "To an eerie degree, France and Britain are alike in population (67mn) and output ($3tn). Manufacturing is the same 9 per cent share of their economies. Their armed forces are comparable. Both built and lost extra-European empires and now have about the same weight in world affairs. One joined the European project from the start, one tarried and ultimately quit, but neither believed the nation state and hard power were forms of Oldthink."
  10. ↑ Economies of Britain and France have more similarities than differences, The Guardian , 5 January 2014
  11. ↑ "The two countries are forever comparing one against the other.[...]", Britain-France ties: How cordial is the entente?, BBC News, 30 January 2014
  12. ↑ (in French) Royaume-Uni Archived 17 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine – France Diplomacie
  13. ↑ Kowert, Paul (2002), Groupthink or deadlock: when do leaders learn from their advisors? (illustrated ed.), SUNY Press, pp.  67–68, ISBN   978-0-7914-5249-3
  14. ↑ Tucker, Spencer (1999), Vietnam (illustrated ed.), Routledge, p. 76, ISBN   978-1-85728-922-0
  15. ↑ Peter K. Parides, "The Halban Affair and British Atomic Diplomacy at the End of the Second World War." Diplomacy & Statecraft 23.4 (2012): 619–635.
  16. ↑ Sean Greenwood, "Return to Dunkirk: The origins of the Anglo‐French treaty of March 1947." Journal of Strategic Studies 6.4 (1983): 49–65.
  17. ↑ Turner p.186
  18. ↑ Turner p.267
  19. ↑ Wilfred L. Kohl, French nuclear diplomacy (Princeton University Press, 2015).
  20. ↑ Jacques E.C. Hymans, "Why Do States Acquire Nuclear Weapons? Comparing the Cases of India and France." in Nuclear India in the Twenty-First Century (2002). 139–160. online
  21. ↑ Philip G. Cerny, The Politics of Grandeur: Ideological Aspects of de Gaulle's Foreign Policy (1980).
  22. ↑ W.W. Kulski, De Gaulle and the World: The Foreign Policy of the Fifth French Republic (1966) passim online free to borrow
  23. ↑ Helen Parr, "Saving the Community: The French response to Britain's second EEC application in 1967." Cold War History 6#4 (2006): 425–454.
  24. ↑ (in French) À Londres, pompe royale pour le couple Sarkozy Archived 19 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine – Le Point
  25. ↑ Ronald Tiersky; John Van Oudenaren (2010). European Foreign Policies: Does Europe Still Matter?. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 167. ISBN   9780742557802.
  26. ↑ Kettle, Martin (5 April 2004). "The odd couple". The Guardian. London.
  27. ↑ "French-UK links to be strengthened in 'entente formidable'". Archived from the original on 7 October 2010. Retrieved 9 July 2010.
  28. ↑ "News | The Scotsman" . Retrieved 10 March 2023.
  29. ↑ Sarkozy: We are stronger together – BBC
  30. ↑ President pays tribute to Britain and calls for 'brotherhood' – The Guardian
  31. ↑ Nicolas Sarkozy: 'France will never forget Britain's war sacrifice' – The Daily Telegraph
  32. ↑ "Sarkozy: Britain, France stronger together". United International Press. 26 March 2008. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 27 March 2008.
  33. ↑ "'Brexit' Aftershocks: More Rifts in Europe, and in Britain, Too". The New York Times. 25 June 2016.
  34. ↑ "EU calls for UK to 'Brexit' quickly; Britain wants more time". The Times of India. Retrieved 28 June 2016.
  35. ↑ "World reaction as UK votes to leave EU". BBC News. 24 June 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
  36. ↑ "Le peuple a tort, changeons de peuple !" (in French). Blog.nicolasdupontaignan.fr. 27 June 2014. Retrieved 28 June 2016.
  37. ↑ "Fishing row: Turbulence has hit relations with France, PM says". BBC News. 30 October 2021. Retrieved 30 October 2021.
  38. ↑ "French fishing fleet descends on Jersey as Royal Navy ships arrive on patrol". Sky News. 6 May 2021.
  39. ↑ "Jersey row: fishing leader says French threats 'close to act of war'". The Guardian. 6 May 2021.
  40. ↑ Hughes, Laura; Manson, Katrina; Mallet, Victor; Parker, George (22 September 2021). "Boris Johnson dismisses French anger over Aukus defence pact" . The Financial Times. Archived from the original on 11 December 2022. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
  41. ↑ "Fishing row: Europe Minister summons French Ambassador over threats made against the UK and Channel Islands". UK GOV. 30 October 2021. Retrieved 30 October 2021.
  42. ↑ "France Threatens to Ban UK Fishing Vessels Over License Dispute". Maritime Executive. Retrieved 1 November 2021.
  43. ↑ Twitter https://twitter.com/francediplo_en/status/1462834768563822609 . Retrieved 26 November 2021.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  44. ↑ Peston, Robert (26 November 2021). "Migrant crisis: Should Johnson be negotiating with Macron via Twitter?". ITV News. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
  45. ↑ "Channel deaths: Priti Patel disinvited to meeting with France". The Guardian. 26 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
  46. ↑ Kar-Gupta, Sudip; Kasolowsky, Raissa (6 March 2022). "France urges Britain to do more to help Ukraine refugees in Calais". Reuters. Reuters. Reuters. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
  47. ↑ Henley, Jon (26 August 2022). "'Serious problem' if France and UK can't tell if they're friends or enemies, says Macron". theguardian. theguardian. theguardian. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
  48. ↑ "Macron, Sunak seek migration deal in unifying summit in Paris". Le Monde . 10 March 2023.
  49. ↑ "King Charles III to begin state visit to France on Wednesday". Le Monde . 16 September 2023.
  50. ↑ Pannier, Alice (2020). Rivals in Arms: The Rise of UK-France Defence Relations in the Twenty-First Century. McGill-Queen's University Press.
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