CXCR4

Last updated
CXCR4
3OE9 (CXCR4).png
Available structures
PDB Ortholog search: PDBe RCSB
Identifiers
Aliases CXCR4 , CD184, D2S201E, FB22, HM89, HSY3RR, LAP-3, LAP3, LCR1, LESTR, NPY3R, NPYR, NPYRL, NPYY3R, WHIM, WHIMS, C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 4, WHIMS1
External IDs OMIM: 162643; MGI: 109563; HomoloGene: 20739; GeneCards: CXCR4; OMA:CXCR4 - orthologs
Orthologs
SpeciesHumanMouse
Entrez
Ensembl
UniProt
RefSeq (mRNA)

NM_003467
NM_001008540
NM_001348056
NM_001348059
NM_001348060

NM_009911
NM_001356509

RefSeq (protein)

NP_001008540
NP_003458
NP_001334985
NP_001334988
NP_001334989

NP_034041
NP_001343438

Location (UCSC) Chr 2: 136.11 – 136.12 Mb Chr 1: 128.52 – 128.52 Mb
PubMed search [3] [4]
Wikidata
View/Edit Human View/Edit Mouse

C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR-4) also known as fusin or CD184 (cluster of differentiation 184) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CXCR4 gene. [5] [6] The protein is a CXC chemokine receptor. [7]

Function

CXCR-4 is an alpha-chemokine receptor specific for stromal-derived-factor-1 (SDF-1 also called CXCL12), a molecule endowed with potent chemotactic activity for lymphocytes. CXCR4 is one of several chemokine co-receptors that HIV can use to infect CD4+ T cells. HIV isolates that use CXCR4 are traditionally known as T-cell tropic isolates. Typically, these viruses are found late in infection. It is unclear as to whether the emergence of CXCR4-using HIV is a consequence or a cause of immunodeficiency.[ citation needed ]

CXCR4 is upregulated during the implantation window in natural and hormone replacement therapy cycles in the endometrium, producing, in presence of a human blastocyst, a surface polarization of the CXCR4 receptors suggesting that this receptor is implicated in the adhesion phase of human implantation.[ citation needed ]

CXCR4's ligand SDF-1 is known to be important in hematopoietic stem cell homing to the bone marrow and in hematopoietic stem cell quiescence. It has been also shown that CXCR4 signalling regulates the expression of CD20 on B cells. Until recently, SDF-1 and CXCR4 were believed to be a relatively monogamous ligand-receptor pair (other chemokines are promiscuous, tending to use several different chemokine receptors). Recent evidence demonstrates ubiquitin is also a natural ligand of CXCR4. [8] Ubiquitin is a small (76-amino acid) protein highly conserved among eukaryotic cells. It is best known for its intracellular role in targeting ubiquitylated proteins for degradation via the ubiquitin proteasome system. Evidence in numerous animal models suggests ubiquitin is anti-inflammatory immune modulator and endogenous opponent of proinflammatory damage associated molecular pattern molecules. [9] It is speculated this interaction may be through CXCR4 mediated signalling pathways. MIF is an additional ligand of CXCR4. [10]

CXCR4 is present in newly generated neurons during embryogenesis and adult life where it plays a role in neuronal guidance. The levels of the receptor decrease as neurons mature. CXCR4 mutant mice have aberrant neuronal distribution. This has been implicated in disorders such as epilepsy. [11]

CXCR4 dimerization is dynamic and increases with concentration. [12]

Clinical significance

Drugs that block the CXCR4 receptor appear to be capable of "mobilizing" hematopoietic stem cells into the bloodstream as peripheral blood stem cells. Peripheral blood stem cell mobilization is very important in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (as a recent alternative to transplantation of surgically harvested bone marrow) and is currently performed using drugs such as G-CSF. G-CSF is a growth factor for neutrophils (a common type of white blood cells), and may act by increasing the activity of neutrophil-derived proteases such as neutrophil elastase in the bone marrow leading to proteolytic degradation of SDF-1. Plerixafor (AMD3100) is a drug, approved for routine clinical use, [13] which directly blocks the CXCR4 receptor. It is a very efficient inducer of hematopoietic stem cell mobilization in animal and human studies. In a small human clinical trial to evaluate the safety and efficacy of fucoidan ingestion (brown seaweed extract), 3g daily of 75% w/w oral fucoidan for 12 days increased the proportion of CD34+CXCR4+ from 45 to 90% and the serum SDF-1 levels, which could be useful in CD34+ cells homing/mobilization via SDF-1/CXCR4 axis. [14]

It has been associated with WHIM syndrome. [15] WHIM like mutations in CXCR4 were recently identified in patients with Waldenström's macroglobulinemia, a B-cell malignancy. [16] The presence of CXCR4 WHIM mutations has been associated with clinical resistance to ibrutinib in patients with Waldenström's macroglobulinemia. [17]

While CXCR4's expression is low or absent in many healthy tissues, it was demonstrated to be expressed in over 23 types of cancer, including breast cancer, ovarian cancer, melanoma, and prostate cancer. Expression of this receptor in cancer cells has been linked to metastasis to tissues containing a high concentration of CXCL12, such as lungs, liver and bone marrow. [18] [19] However, in breast cancer where SDF1/CXCL12 is also expressed by the cancer cells themselves along with CXCR4, CXCL12 expression is positively correlated with disease free (metastasis free) survival. CXCL12 (over-)expressing cancers might not sense the CXCL12 gradient released from the metastasis target tissues since the receptor, CXCR4, is saturated with the ligand produced in an autocrine manner. [20] Another explanation of this observation is provided by a study that shows the ability of CXCL12 (and CCL2) producing tumors to entrain neutrophils that inhibit seeding of tumor cells in the lung. [21]

Drug response

Chronic exposure to THC has been shown to increase T lymphocyte CXCR4 expression on both CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes in rhesus macaques. [22] It has been shown that BCR signalling inhibitors also affect CXCR4 pathway and thus CD20 expression.[ citation needed ]

Interactions

CXCR4 has been shown to interact with USP14. [23]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stromal cell-derived factor 1</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

The stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1), also known as C-X-C motif chemokine 12 (CXCL12), is a chemokine protein that in humans is encoded by the CXCL12 gene on chromosome 10. It is ubiquitously expressed in many tissues and cell types. Stromal cell-derived factors 1-alpha and 1-beta are small cytokines that belong to the chemokine family, members of which activate leukocytes and are often induced by proinflammatory stimuli such as lipopolysaccharide, TNF, or IL1. The chemokines are characterized by the presence of 4 conserved cysteines that form 2 disulfide bonds. They can be classified into 2 subfamilies. In the CC subfamily, the cysteine residues are adjacent to each other. In the CXC subfamily, they are separated by an intervening amino acid. The SDF1 proteins belong to the latter group. CXCL12 signaling has been observed in several cancers. The CXCL12 gene also contains one of 27 SNPs associated with increased risk of coronary artery disease.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Duffy antigen system</span> Human blood group classification

Duffy antigen/chemokine receptor (DARC), also known as Fy glycoprotein (FY) or CD234, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ACKR1 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemokine</span> Small cytokines or signaling proteins secreted by cells

Chemokines, or chemotactic cytokines, are a family of small cytokines or signaling proteins secreted by cells that induce directional movement of leukocytes, as well as other cell types, including endothelial and epithelial cells. In addition to playing a major role in the activation of host immune responses, chemokines are important for biological processes, including morphogenesis and wound healing, as well as in the pathogenesis of diseases like cancers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interleukin 8</span> Mammalian protein found in humans

Interleukin 8 is a chemokine produced by macrophages and other cell types such as epithelial cells, airway smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells. Endothelial cells store IL-8 in their storage vesicles, the Weibel–Palade bodies. In humans, the interleukin-8 protein is encoded by the CXCL8 gene. IL-8 is initially produced as a precursor peptide of 99 amino acids which then undergoes cleavage to create several active IL-8 isoforms. In culture, a 72 amino acid peptide is the major form secreted by macrophages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CCL5</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

Chemokine ligand 5 is a protein which in humans is encoded by the CCL5 gene. The gene has been discovered in 1990 by in situ hybridisation and it is localised on 17q11.2-q12 chromosome. It is also known as RANTES. RANTES was first described by Dr. Tom Schall who named the protein, the original source of the name Rantes was from the Argentine movie Man Facing Southeast about an alien who shows up in a mental ward who was named Rantés, the rather clunky acronym was only made to fit the name.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HIV tropism</span> Cell type in which HIV infects and replicates

HIV tropism refers to the cell type in which the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infects and replicates. HIV tropism of a patient's virus is measured by the Trofile assay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">L-selectin</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

L-selectin, also known as CD62L, is a cell adhesion molecule found on the cell surface of leukocytes, and the blastocyst. It is coded for in the human by the SELL gene. L-selectin belongs to the selectin family of proteins, which recognize sialylated carbohydrate groups containing a Sialyl LewisX (sLeX) determinant. L-selectin plays an important role in both the innate and adaptive immune responses by facilitating leukocyte-endothelial cell adhesion events. These tethering interactions are essential for the trafficking of monocytes and neutrophils into inflamed tissue as well as the homing of lymphocytes to secondary lymphoid organs. L-selectin is also expressed by lymphoid primed hematopoietic stem cells and may participate in the migration of these stem cells to the primary lymphoid organs. In addition to its function in the immune response, L-selectin is expressed on embryonic cells and facilitates the attachment of the blastocyst to the endometrial endothelium during human embryo implantation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CCL7</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

Chemokine ligand 7 (CCL7) is a small cytokine that was previously called monocyte-chemotactic protein 3 (MCP3). CCL7 is a small protein that belongs to the CC chemokine family and is most closely related to CCL2.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CCL19</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

Chemokine ligand 19 (CCL19) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CCL19 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CXCL1</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

The chemokine ligand 1 (CXCL1) is a small peptide belonging to the CXC chemokine family that acts as a chemoattractant for several immune cells, especially neutrophils or other non-hematopoietic cells to the site of injury or infection and plays an important role in regulation of immune and inflammatory responses. It was previously called GRO1 oncogene, GROα, neutrophil-activating protein 3 (NAP-3) and melanoma growth stimulating activity, alpha (MGSA-α). CXCL1 was first cloned from a cDNA library of genes induced by platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulation of BALB/c-3T3 murine embryonic fibroblasts and named "KC" for its location in the nitrocellulose colony hybridization assay. This designation is sometimes erroneously believed to be an acronym and defined as "keratinocytes-derived chemokine". Rat CXCL1 was first reported when NRK-52E cells were stimulated with interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to generate a cytokine that was chemotactic for rat neutrophils, cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant (CINC). In humans, this protein is encoded by the gene CXCL1 and is located on human chromosome 4 among genes for other CXC chemokines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CXCL2</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

Chemokine ligand 2 (CXCL2) is a small cytokine belonging to the CXC chemokine family that is also called macrophage inflammatory protein 2-alpha (MIP2-alpha), Growth-regulated protein beta (Gro-beta) and Gro oncogene-2 (Gro-2). CXCL2 is 90% identical in amino acid sequence as a related chemokine, CXCL1. This chemokine is secreted by monocytes and macrophages and is chemotactic for polymorphonuclear leukocytes and hematopoietic stem cells. The gene for CXCL2 is located on human chromosome 4 in a cluster of other CXC chemokines. CXCL2 mobilizes cells by interacting with a cell surface chemokine receptor called CXCR2.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CXCL5</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

C-X-C motif chemokine 5 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CXCL5 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CX3C motif chemokine receptor 1</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

CX3C motif chemokine receptor 1 (CX3CR1), also known as the fractalkine receptor or G-protein coupled receptor 13 (GPR13), is a transmembrane protein of the G protein-coupled receptor 1 (GPCR1) family and the only known member of the CX3C chemokine receptor subfamily.

CXC chemokine receptors are integral membrane proteins that specifically bind and respond to cytokines of the CXC chemokine family. They represent one subfamily of chemokine receptors, a large family of G protein-linked receptors that are known as seven transmembrane (7-TM) proteins, since they span the cell membrane seven times. There are currently six known CXC chemokine receptors in mammals, named CXCR1 through CXCR6.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plerixafor</span> Chemical compound

Plerixafor, sold under the brand name Mozobil, is an immunostimulant used to mobilize hematopoietic stem cells in cancer patients into the bloodstream. The stem cells are then extracted from the blood and transplanted back to the patient. The drug was developed by AnorMED, which was subsequently bought by Genzyme.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interleukin 8 receptor, beta</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

Interleukin 8 receptor, beta is a chemokine receptor. IL8RB is also known as CXCR2, and CXCR2 is now the IUPHAR Committee on Receptor Nomenclature and Drug classification-recommended name.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CCR1</span> Protein in humans

C-C chemokine receptor type 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CCR1 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">ACKR3</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

Atypical chemokine receptor 3 also known as C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR-7) and G-protein coupled receptor 159 (GPR159) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ACKR3 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CXCR6</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

C-X-C chemokine receptor type 6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CXCR6 gene. CXCR6 has also recently been designated CD186.

Chemorepulsion is the directional movement of a cell away from a substance. Of the two directional varieties of chemotaxis, chemoattraction has been studied to a much greater extent. Only recently have the key components of the chemorepulsive pathway been elucidated. The exact mechanism is still being investigated, and its constituents are currently being explored as likely candidates for immunotherapies.

References

  1. 1 2 3 GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000121966 Ensembl, May 2017
  2. 1 2 3 GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000045382 Ensembl, May 2017
  3. "Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  4. "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  5. Moriuchi M, Moriuchi H, Turner W, Fauci AS (November 1997). "Cloning and analysis of The sigma gene the promoter region of CXCR4, a coreceptor for HIV-1 entry". Journal of Immunology. 159 (9): 4322–9. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.159.9.4322 . PMID   9379028. S2CID   36552134.
  6. Caruz A, Samsom M, Alonso JM, Alcami J, Baleux F, Virelizier JL, Parmentier M, Arenzana-Seisdedos F (April 1998). "Genomic organization and promoter characterization of human CXCR4 gene". FEBS Letters. 426 (2): 271–8. doi: 10.1016/S0014-5793(98)00359-7 . PMID   9599023. S2CID   36571818.
  7. "Gene group: C-X-C motif chemokine receptors (CXCR)". HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee.
  8. Saini V, Marchese A, Majetschak M (May 2010). "CXC chemokine receptor 4 is a cell surface receptor for extracellular ubiquitin". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 285 (20): 15566–76. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M110.103408 . PMC   2865327 . PMID   20228059.
  9. Majetschak M (February 2011). "Extracellular ubiquitin: immune modulator and endogenous opponent of damage-associated molecular pattern molecules". Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 89 (2): 205–19. doi: 10.1189/jlb.0510316 . PMID   20689098. S2CID   24072570.
  10. Bernhagen J, Krohn R, Lue H, Gregory JL, Zernecke A, Koenen RR, Dewor M, Georgiev I, Schober A, Leng L, Kooistra T, Fingerle-Rowson G, Ghezzi P, Kleemann R, McColl SR, Bucala R, Hickey MJ, Weber C (May 2007). "MIF is a noncognate ligand of CXC chemokine receptors in inflammatory and atherogenic cell recruitment". Nature Medicine. 13 (5): 587–96. doi:10.1038/nm1567. PMID   17435771. S2CID   23194228.
  11. Bagri A, Gurney T, He X, Zou YR, Littman DR, Tessier-Lavigne M, Pleasure SJ (September 2002). "The chemokine SDF1 regulates migration of dentate granule cells". Development. 129 (18): 4249–60. doi:10.1242/dev.129.18.4249. PMID   12183377.
  12. Işbilir A, Möller J, Arimont M, Bobkov V, Perpiñá-Viciano C, Hoffmann C, et al. (November 2020). "Advanced fluorescence microscopy reveals disruption of dynamic CXCR4 dimerization by subpocket-specific inverse agonists". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (46): 29144–29154. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11729144I. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2013319117 . PMC   7682396 . PMID   33148803.
  13. To LB, Levesque JP, Herbert KE (October 2011). "How I treat patients who mobilize hematopoietic stem cells poorly". Blood. 118 (17): 4530–40. doi: 10.1182/blood-2011-06-318220 . PMID   21832280. S2CID   2543277.
  14. Irhimeh MR, Fitton JH, Lowenthal RM (June 2007). "Fucoidan ingestion increases the expression of CXCR4 on human CD34+ cells". Experimental Hematology. 35 (6): 989–94. doi: 10.1016/j.exphem.2007.02.009 . PMID   17533053.
  15. Balabanian K, Levoye A, Klemm L, Lagane B, Hermine O, Harriague J, Baleux F, Arenzana-Seisdedos F, Bachelerie F (March 2008). "Leukocyte analysis from WHIM syndrome patients reveals a pivotal role for GRK3 in CXCR4 signaling". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 118 (3): 1074–84. doi:10.1172/JCI33187. PMC   2242619 . PMID   18274673.
  16. Hunter ZR, Xu L, Yang G, Zhou Y, Liu X, Cao Y, Manning RJ, Tripsas C, Patterson CJ, Sheehy P, Treon SP (March 2014). "The genomic landscape of Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia is characterized by highly recurring MYD88 and WHIM-like CXCR4 mutations, and small somatic deletions associated with B-cell lymphomagenesis". Blood. 123 (11): 1637–46. doi: 10.1182/blood-2013-09-525808 . PMID   24366360.
  17. Treon SP, Tripsas CK, Meid K, Warren D, Varma G, Green R, et al. (2015). "Ibrutinib in previously treated Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia". N. Engl. J. Med. 372 (15): 1430–40. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1501548 . PMID   25853747.
  18. Sun X, Cheng G, Hao M, Zheng J, Zhou X, Zhang J, Taichman RS, Pienta KJ, Wang J (December 2010). "CXCL12 / CXCR4 / CXCR7 chemokine axis and cancer progression". Cancer and Metastasis Reviews. 29 (4): 709–22. doi:10.1007/s10555-010-9256-x. PMC   3175097 . PMID   20839032.
  19. Balkwill F (July 2004). "Cancer and the chemokine network". Nature Reviews. Cancer. 4 (7): 540–50. doi:10.1038/nrc1388. PMID   15229479. S2CID   205467365.
  20. Mirisola V, Zuccarino A, Bachmeier BE, Sormani MP, Falter J, Nerlich A, Pfeffer U (September 2009). "CXCL12/SDF1 expression by breast cancers is an independent prognostic marker of disease-free and overall survival". European Journal of Cancer. 45 (14): 2579–87. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2009.06.026. PMID   19646861.
  21. Granot Z, Henke E, Comen EA, King TA, Norton L, Benezra R (September 2011). "Tumor entrained neutrophils inhibit seeding in the premetastatic lung". Cancer Cell. 20 (3): 300–14. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2011.08.012. PMC   3172582 . PMID   21907922.
  22. LeCapitaine NJ, Zhang P, Winsauer P, Walker E, Vande Stouwe C, Porretta C, Molina PE (December 2011). "Chronic Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol administration increases lymphocyte CXCR4 expression in rhesus macaques". Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology. 6 (4): 540–5. doi:10.1007/s11481-011-9277-4. PMC   3181271 . PMID   21484257.
  23. Mines MA, Goodwin JS, Limbird LE, Cui FF, Fan GH (February 2009). "Deubiquitination of CXCR4 by USP14 is critical for both CXCL12-induced CXCR4 degradation and chemotaxis but not ERK activation". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 284 (9): 5742–52. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M808507200 . PMC   2645827 . PMID   19106094.

Further reading