The interleukin-2 receptor alpha chain (also called Tac antigen, P55, and mainly CD25) is a protein involved in the assembly of the high-affinity interleukin-2 receptor, consisting of alpha (IL2RA), beta ( IL2RB ) and the common gamma chain ( IL2RG ). As the name indicates, this receptor interacts with interleukin-2, a pleiotropic cytokine which plays an important role in immune homeostasis. [5] [6]
The human protein interleukin-2 receptor subunit alpha is encoded by a gene called IL2RA with a length around 51,6 kb. Alternative names for this protein coding gene are IL2R, IDDM10 and TCGFR. Location of IL2RA in human genome is on the short arm of 10th chromosome (10p15.1). [7] [8] [9]
Several frequent point mutations, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), have been identified in or in close proximity to IL2RA gene in the population. These SNPs have been linked mainly to susceptibility to immune dysregulation disorders, with majority found in research on multiple sclerosis (MS) and type 1 diabetes mellitus. [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]
IL2RA gene orthologues with identical protein functionality are relatively abundant and constant among animal species, especially in mammals subgroups. Moreover, conserved homologs of this gene are in mouse, rat, dog, cow, chimpanzee and Rhesus monkey. [15] [16]
CD25 is expressed broadly among leukocytes. The highest surface expression of this protein is on regulatory T cells (Tregs), where CD25 is expressed constitutively, especially on a subset classified as naturally occurring Tregs. It can also be found on activated B cells, NK (natural killer) cells, thymocytes, and some myeloid lineage cells (e.g. macrophages, dendritic cells). [17] [18] IL2RA has been used as a marker to identify CD4+FoxP3+ regulatory T cells in mice, and it has been found that a large proportion of resting memory T cells constitutively express IL2RA in humans. [19] High expression of CD25 is also found on TCR activated conventional T cells (both CD8+ and CD4+ T lymphocytes), where it is considered to be a marker of T cell activation. [20] Additionally, expression of the IL-2 receptor alpha subunit can be found in non-lymphoid tissues such as lungs (alveolar macrophages), liver (Kupffer cells) and skin (Langerhans cells). [5] [18]
IL2RA protein can be expressed in many types of neoplastic cells, such as in most B-cell neoplasms, T-cell lymphomas, some acute nonlymphocytic leukemias, neuroblastomas, mastocytosis, Waldenstrom macroglobuliaemia and tumor infiltrating lymphocytes. [21] [22]
Interleukin-2 receptor alpha chain is an integral-membrane protein, more precisely type I transmembrane protein. This bitopic polypeptide is constructed by a sequence of 272 amino acids and has a molecular mass of around 30.8 kDa. [8] CD25 consists of three domains: extracellular (N-terminus), transmembrane (alpha-helix) and cytoplasmic (C-terminus). However, while extracellular part is able to function as a binding site for interleukin-2, short cytoplasmic domain lacks an ability to induce intracellular signalling and therefore needs to oligomerise with other IL-2 receptor subunits. [8] [9] The interleukin-2 (IL2) receptor alpha (IL2RA) and beta ( IL2RB) chains, together with the common gamma chain ( IL2RG ), constitute the high-affinity IL-2 receptor complex (Kd ~10−11M). Homodimeric alpha chains (IL2RA) result in low-affinity receptor (Kd ~10−8M) with no signalling ability, while dimeric beta ( IL2RB ) and gamma chains ( IL2RG ) produce a medium-affinity receptor (Kd ~10−9M). Moreover, CD25 is an exclusive subunit that entirely binds IL-2, while CD132 binds the shared γc family cytokines (IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15 and IL-21), and the CD122 subunit binds also IL-15. [5] [23] [24]
Soluble IL2RA has been isolated and determined to result from extracellular proteolysis during activation of T lymphocytes. [18] Also, alternately-spliced IL2RA mRNAs have been isolated, but the significance of each is currently unknown. [25]
Interleukin-2 can interact with intermediate-affinity dimeric IL-2 receptor, which consists of beta (CD122) and gamma (CD132) chains or with high-affinity trimeric complex, where also alpha subunit (CD25) constructs the IL-2 receptor and provides enhanced specific binding force. After activation of the receptor by its ligand, heterodimerisation of beta and gamma intracellular domains takes place. [5] [23] This coupling of subunits brings together Janus kinases JAK1 and JAK3, considering their association with respective cytoplasmic parts of beta and gamma subunits. Downstream phosphorylation leads to initiation of three signalling pathways: JAK-STAT pathway, PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway and Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK (MAPK) pathway. Regarding JAK-STAT pathway, particular signal transducers and activators of transcription participate in this signalling cascade: STAT5, STAT1 and STAT3 and after dimerisation, they translocate to nucleus to perform transcription factor functions. All three signalling pathways are important for diverse cellular regulations, in terms of increased survival (anti-apoptotic effect), proliferation and cell growth, transcriptional regulation and cell differentiation. [24] [6] T lymphocytes are influenced by IL-2R signalling in case of CD4+ T helper subtype differentiation: promoting Th1, Th2, Th9, Tfr (T follicular regulatory cells) and suppressing Th17, Tfh ( T follicular helper cells). Additionally, strength of IL-2R signalling in CD8+ T cytotoxic lymphocytes may be connected to phenotypic fate of these cells for effector and memory T cells formation. [5] [18] [26]
Roifman's group was the first to identify immunological consequences of CD25 loss and the patient has suffered from chronic infections and severe autoimmunity resembling Immune dysregulation, Polyendocrinopathy, Enteropathy, X-linked (IPEX) syndrome, caused by mutations in FOXP3 gene. [23]
Levels of CD25 soluble form, called sIL-2Rα, has been connected to pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases and cancer. Since sCD25 is produced during immune activation, it is used as one of biomarkers to track disease progression and to indicate outcome for clinical disorders. Especially, it is a hallmark for hyper-activated immune system and cytokine storm, which may lead to multiple organ system failure. [27] In cancer, increased levels of this soluble protein are diagnostic marker for leukemia and lymphoma. [28] Furthermore, sIL-2Rα levels have some significance also in infectious diseases and transplantation. Higher serum levels were correlated with severity and need for hospitalisation of COVID-19 patients. [29] sIL-2Rα amount in plasma of HIV ( human immunodeficiency virus) positive patients has a correlation to HIV viral load and so to disease progression. Similarly in Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, patients have increased levels of sIL-2Rα and autoantibodies. [30] In regard to transplantation, higher levels of sCD25 may be used as a predictor of organ rejection and graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) for hematopoietic transplantations. Concerning CVD (cardiovascular diseases) soluble IL-2Rα has positive correlation with hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiac sarcoidosis, stroke and heart failure. For neurological disorders, high levels of sIL-2Rα are a sign for increased risk of developing schizophrenia. [18]
Since Tregs express IL-2Rα subunit constitutively on the surface, some immunotherapeutic approaches try to use this information for selectivity. [27] NARA1 antibody is used in antitumour approaches to preferentially supplement interleukin-2 to conventional CD8+ T cells . NARA1 binds to the cytokine on the IL-2Rα binding site preventing binding to CD25. This complex should therefore interact with conventional T lymphocytes over T regulatory cells and thus increase cytotoxic activity without increasing suppressing activity in tumour environment. [31] Antibodies directly against CD25 have been altered to contain ‘activating’ Fc regions for the purpose of antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, in this case Treg depletion. Antibody marks a cell with IL-2Rα subunit on the surface, which is subsequently recognized and cleared by myeloid cell with Fc receptor. [5] Moreover, for treatment of multiple sclerosis, drug called daclizumab binds to IL2RA and so blocks high-affinity IL-2 receptors on recently activated T cells for interaction with IL-2 as well as IL-2 cross-presentation by dendritic cells. [32] [33]
From the other side, treatment strategies for autoimmune and inflammatory diseases need selectivity for Tregs and suppression of immune system. IL-2Rα subunit expression on Tregs secures better sensitivity to IL-2. Therefore, administration of low doses of the cytokine preferentially stimulates T regulatory cells over others. Low-dose IL-2 therapy is used for graft-versus-host disease, type 1 diabetes mellitus, hepatitis C virus-induced vasculitis and systemic lupus. [5] [6]
Interleukins (ILs) are a group of cytokines that are expressed and secreted by white blood cells (leukocytes) as well as some other body cells. The human genome encodes more than 50 interleukins and related proteins.
Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is an interleukin, a type of cytokine signaling molecule in the immune system. It is a 15.5–16 kDa protein that regulates the activities of white blood cells (leukocytes, often lymphocytes) that are responsible for immunity. IL-2 is part of the body's natural response to microbial infection, and in discriminating between foreign ("non-self") and "self". IL-2 mediates its effects by binding to IL-2 receptors, which are expressed by lymphocytes. The major sources of IL-2 are activated CD4+ T cells and activated CD8+ T cells. Put shortly the function of IL-2 is to stimulate the growth of helper, cytotoxic and regulatory T cells.
The regulatory T cells (Tregs or Treg cells), formerly known as suppressor T cells, are a subpopulation of T cells that modulate the immune system, maintain tolerance to self-antigens, and prevent autoimmune disease. Treg cells are immunosuppressive and generally suppress or downregulate induction and proliferation of effector T cells. Treg cells express the biomarkers CD4, FOXP3, and CD25 and are thought to be derived from the same lineage as naïve CD4+ cells. Because effector T cells also express CD4 and CD25, Treg cells are very difficult to effectively discern from effector CD4+, making them difficult to study. Research has found that the cytokine transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) is essential for Treg cells to differentiate from naïve CD4+ cells and is important in maintaining Treg cell homeostasis.
Interleukin 12 (IL-12) is an interleukin that is naturally produced by dendritic cells, macrophages, neutrophils, helper T cells and human B-lymphoblastoid cells (NC-37) in response to antigenic stimulation. IL-12 belongs to the family of interleukin-12. IL-12 family is unique in comprising the only heterodimeric cytokines, which includes IL-12, IL-23, IL-27 and IL-35. Despite sharing many structural features and molecular partners, they mediate surprisingly diverse functional effects.
The common gamma chain (γc), also known as interleukin-2 receptor subunit gamma or IL-2RG, is a cytokine receptor sub-unit that is common to the receptor complexes for at least six different interleukin receptors: IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15 and interleukin-21 receptor. The γc glycoprotein is a member of the type I cytokine receptor family expressed on most lymphocyte populations, and its gene is found on the X-chromosome of mammals.
The interleukin-2 receptor (IL-2R) is a heterotrimeric protein expressed on the surface of certain immune cells, such as lymphocytes, that binds and responds to a cytokine called IL-2.
Interleukin-15 (IL-15) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL15 gene. IL-15 is an inflammatory cytokine with structural similarity to Interleukin-2 (IL-2). Like IL-2, IL-15 binds to and signals through a complex composed of IL-2/IL-15 receptor beta chain (CD122) and the common gamma chain. IL-15 is secreted by mononuclear phagocytes following infection by virus(es). This cytokine induces the proliferation of natural killer cells, i.e. cells of the innate immune system whose principal role is to kill virally infected cells.
Interleukin-31 (IL-31) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL31 gene that resides on chromosome 12. IL-31 is an inflammatory cytokine that helps trigger cell-mediated immunity against pathogens. It has also been identified as a major player in a number of chronic inflammatory diseases, including atopic dermatitis.
Interleukin 27 (IL-27) is a member of the IL-12 cytokine family. It is a heterodimeric cytokine that is encoded by two distinct genes, Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene 3 (EBI3) and IL-27p28. IL-27 is expressed by antigen presenting cells and interacts with a specific cell-surface receptor complex known as IL-27 receptor (IL-27R). This receptor consists of two proteins, IL-27Rɑ and gp130. IL-27 induces differentiation of the diverse populations of T cells in the immune system and also upregulates IL-10.
Interleukin-26 (IL-26) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL26 gene.
The interleukin 4 receptor is a type I cytokine receptor. It is a heterodimer, that is, composed of two subunits. IL4R is the human gene coding for IL-4Rα, the subunit which combines with either common gamma chain or with IL-13Rα1.
Interleukin 35 (IL-35) is a recently discovered anti-inflammatory cytokine from the IL-12 family. Member of IL-12 family - IL-35 is produced by wide range of regulatory lymphocytes and plays a role in immune suppression. IL-35 can block the development of Th1 and Th17 cells by limiting early T cell proliferation.
Interleukin 15 receptor, alpha subunit is a subunit of the interleukin 15 receptor that in humans is encoded by the IL15RA gene.
Interleukin-2 receptor subunit beta is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL2RB gene. Also known as CD122; IL15RB; P70-75.
The interleukin-23 receptor is a type I cytokine receptor. It is encoded in human by the IL23R gene. In complex with the interleukin-12 receptor β1 subunit (IL-12Rβ1), it is activated by the cytokine interleukin 23 (IL-23). The IL23R mRNA is 2.8 kilobases in length and includes 12 exons. The translated protein contains 629 amino acids; it is a type I penetrating protein and includes a signal peptide, an N-terminal fibronectin III-like domain and an intracellular part that contains three potential tyrosine phosphorylation domains. There are 24 IL23R splice variants in mitogen-activated lymphocytes. IL23R includes some single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the region encoding the domain that binds IL-23, which may lead to differences between people in Th17 activation. There is also a variant of IL-23R that consists of just the extracellular part and is known as soluble IL-23R. This form can compete with the membrane-bound form to bind IL-23, modulating the Th17 immune response and regulation of inflammation and immune function.
Interleukin-15 receptor is a type I cytokine receptor, binding interleukin-15.
Interleukin-28 receptor is a type II cytokine receptor found largely in epithelial cells. It binds type 3 interferons, interleukin-28 A, Interleukin-28B, interleukin 29 and interferon lambda 4. It consists of an α chain and shares a common β subunit with the interleukin-10 receptor. Binding to the interleukin-28 receptor, which is restricted to select cell types, is important for fighting infection. Binding of the type 3 interferons to the receptor results in activation of the JAK/STAT signaling pathway.
T helper 3 cells (Th3) are a subset of T lymphocytes with immunoregulary and immunosuppressive functions, that can be induced by administration of foreign oral antigen. Th3 cells act mainly through the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokine transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β). Th3 have been described both in mice and human as CD4+FOXP3− regulatory T cells. Th3 cells were first described in research focusing on oral tolerance in the experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) mouse model and later described as CD4+CD25−FOXP3−LAP+ cells, that can be induced in the gut by oral antigen through T cell receptor (TCR) signalling.
The Interleukin-1 family is a group of 11 cytokines that plays a central role in the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses to infections or sterile insults.
Interleukin 1 receptor-like 1, also known as IL1RL1 and ST2, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL1RL1 gene.
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