This list considers only the incumbent head of state or government. Heads of state or government assassinated or executed after they left office (e.g. Aldo Moro and Shinzo Abe) are excluded.
Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander, also known as Alexander Severus, was Roman emperor from 222 until 235. The last emperor from the Severan dynasty, he succeeded his slain cousin Elagabalus in 222, at the age of 13. Alexander himself was eventually assassinated, and his death marked the beginning of the events of the Crisis of the Third Century, which included nearly fifty years of civil war, foreign invasion, and the collapse of the monetary economy.
Marcus Claudius Tacitus was Roman emperor from 275 to 276. During his short reign he campaigned against the Goths and the Heruli, for which he received the title Gothicus Maximus.
Marcus Aurelius Claudius "Gothicus", also known as Claudius II, was Roman emperor from 268 to 270. During his reign he fought successfully against the Alemanni and decisively defeated the Goths at the Battle of Naissus. He died after succumbing to a "pestilence", possibly the Plague of Cyprian that had ravaged the provinces of the Empire.
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, better known by his nickname Caracalla, was Roman emperor from 198 to 217 AD. He was a member of the Severan dynasty, the elder son of Emperor Septimius Severus and Empress Julia Domna. Proclaimed co-ruler by his father in 198, he reigned jointly with his brother Geta, co-emperor from 209, after their father's death in 211. His brother was murdered by the Praetorian Guard later that year under orders from Caracalla, who then reigned afterwards as sole ruler of the Roman Empire. Caracalla found administration to be mundane, leaving those responsibilities to his mother. Caracalla's reign featured domestic instability and external invasions by the Germanic peoples.
Flavius Valerius Constantius, also called Constantius I, was a Roman emperor from 305 to 306. He was one of the four original members of the Tetrarchy established by Diocletian, first serving as caesar from 293 to 305 and then ruling as augustus until his death. Constantius was also father of Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor of Rome. The nickname "Chlorus" was first popularized by Byzantine-era historians and not used during the emperor's lifetime.
Numerian was Roman emperor from 283 to 284 with his older brother Carinus. They were sons of Carus, a general raised to the office of praetorian prefect under Emperor Probus in 282.
Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman emperor from 305 to 311. During his reign he campaigned, aided by Diocletian, against the Sasanian Empire, sacking their capital Ctesiphon in 299. He also campaigned across the Danube against the Carpi, defeating them in 297 and 300. Although he was a staunch opponent of Christianity, Galerius ended the Diocletianic Persecution when he issued the Edict of Toleration in Serdica (Sofia) in 311.
Marcus Aurelius Carus was Roman emperor from 282 to 283. During his short reign, Carus fought the Germanic tribes and Sarmatians along the Danube frontier with success.
Gordian I was Roman emperor for 22 days with his son Gordian II in 238, the Year of the Six Emperors. Caught up in a rebellion against the Emperor Maximinus Thrax, he was defeated by forces loyal to Maximinus, and he committed suicide after the death of his son.
Gordian II was Roman emperor with his father Gordian I in 238 AD, the Year of the Six Emperors. Seeking to overthrow Maximinus Thrax, he died in battle outside Carthage. Since he died before his father, Gordian II likely had the shortest reign of any Roman emperor, at 22 days, possibly second only to Quintillus, who ruled for no less than 17 days.
Magnus Magnentius was a Roman general and usurper against Constantius II. Of Germanic descent, Magnentius served with distinction in Gaul under the emperor Constans. On 18 January 350 Magnentius was acclaimed Augustus. Quickly killing the unpopular Constans, Magnentius gained control over most of the Western Empire. The Eastern emperor Constantius II, the brother of Constans, refused to acknowledge Magnentius' legitimacy and led a successful campaign against Magnentius. Ultimately, Magnentius' forces were scattered after the Battle of Mons Seleucus, and he committed suicide on 10 August 353.
The Roman emperor was the ruler and monarchical head of state of the Roman Empire, starting with the granting of the title augustus to Octavian in 27 BC. The term "emperor" is a modern convention, and did not exist as such during the Empire. Often when a given Roman is described as becoming emperor in English, it reflects his taking of the title augustus and later basileus. Another title used was imperator, originally a military honorific, and caesar, originally a surname. Early emperors also used the title princeps alongside other Republican titles, notably consul and pontifex maximus.
Marcus Aurelius Marius was emperor of the Gallic Empire in 269 following the assassination of Postumus.
Julia Maesa was a member of the Severan dynasty of the Roman Empire who was the grandmother of emperors Elagabalus and Severus Alexander, elder sister of empress Julia Domna, and mother of Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea. She wielded influence during the reigns of her grandsons as Augusta of the Empire from 218 to her death, especially on their elevation to emperors.
Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus was Roman emperor with Balbinus for 99 days in 238, during the Year of the Six Emperors. The sources for this period are scant, and thus knowledge of the emperor is limited. In most contemporary texts he is referred to by his cognomen "Maximus" rather than by his second nomen Pupienus.
The term Western Roman Empire is used in modern historiography to refer to the western provinces of the Roman Empire, collectively, during any period in which they were administered separately from the eastern provinces by a separate, independent imperial court. Particularly during the period from AD 395 to 476, there were separate, coequal courts dividing the governance of the empire into the Western provinces and the Eastern provinces with a distinct imperial succession in the separate courts. The terms Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire were coined in modern times to describe political entities that were de facto independent; contemporary Romans did not consider the Empire to have been split into two empires but viewed it as a single polity governed by two imperial courts for administrative expediency. The Western Empire collapsed in 476, and the Western imperial court in Ravenna disappeared by AD 554, at the end of Justinian's Gothic War.
The Dominate, also known as the late Roman Empire, is the despotic form of imperial government of the late Roman Empire. It followed the earlier period known as the Principate. Until the empire was reunited in 313, this phase is more often called the Tetrarchy.
Martinian was Roman emperor from July to September 324. He was raised to the purple by the emperor Licinius, whom he had hitherto served as a senior bureaucrat, during Licinius's civil war against the emperor Constantine I. Constantine defeated both emperors and forced them to abdicate, and executed them after initially showing leniency.
Titus Flavius Claudius Sulpicianus was a Roman statesman who served as Senator and Consul suffectus. He unsuccessfully attempted to succeed his son-in-law Pertinax as Emperor in 193.
References
↑ Ulla Koch-Westenholz (2000). Babylonian Liver Omens: The Chapters Manzazu, Padanu, and Pan Takalti of the Babylonian Extispicy Series Mainly from Assurbanipal's Library. Museum Tusculanum. p.394.
↑ Dynastic Chronicle v 5-6: mdÉ-a-mu-kin-NUMUN LUGAL IM.GI DUMUmḪaš-mar iti 3 in.ak, ina raq-qa-ti šá É-mḪaš-mar qí-bir.
↑ J. A. Brinkman (1982). "Babylonia, c. 1000 – 748 B.C.". In John Boardman; I. E. S. Edwards; N. G. L. Hammond; E. Sollberger (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History (Volume 3, Part 1). Cambridge University Press. pp.296–297.
↑ J. A. Brinkman (2001). "Nabû-nādin-zēri". In Erich Ebeling; Bruno Meissner; Dietz Otto Edzard (eds.). Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie: Nab-Nuzi. Walter de Gruyter. pp.29–30.
↑ J. A. Brinkman (1984). Prelude to Empire: Babylonian Society and Politics, 747-626 B.C. Vol.7. Philadelphia: Occasional Publications of the Babylonian Fund. p.23.
↑ J. A. Brinkman (1984). Prelude to Empire: Babylonian Society and Politics, 747-626 B.C. Vol.7. Philadelphia: Occasional Publications of the Babylonian Fund. pp.42–43.
↑ Albertz, R.; Israel in exile: The history and literature of the sixth century BC; Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta 2003, p.63 ISBN1-58983-055-5.
↑ Panegyrici Latini 8:12; Aurelius Victor, Book of Caesars39.40; Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History22; Orosius, Seven Books of History Against the Pagans7:25.6
↑ Susan Wise Bauer, "The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade", W. W. Norton & Company, 22 Feb 2010 (p.68)
↑ Historia nova, IV. 53 which relies heavily on the history by the pagan Eunapius
↑ Carr, John (2015). Fighting Emperors of Byzantium. Pen & Sword. pp.40–43. ISBN978-1783831166.
1 2 Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin, John Robert Martindale, John Morris, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, volume 2, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN0-521-20159-4, pg. 316
1 2 Birley, Anthony (2005), The Roman Government in Britain, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-925237-4 pg. 460
↑ Procopius, III.3.9; translated by Dewing, pp. 75ff
↑ Aston, William. (1998). Nihongi, Vol. 1, pp. 328–333.
↑ John of Antioch, fragment 203; Marcellinus, sa 461; Fasti vindobonenses priores, No 588. Procopius (VII.14–15) does not mention the Emperor's return from Hispania and said that Majorian died of dysentery: it is possible that the news has been put about by Ricimer (Fik Meijer, Emperors Do not Die in Bed, Routledge, 2004, ISBN0-415-31201-9, p. 155). Victor of Tonnena erroneously claims that Majorian reached Rome and was killed there, and puts this event in 463 (Chronica, s.a. 463).
↑ Cassiodorus, Chronicle, 1293; Marcellinus Comes, Chronicon, s.a.472; Procopius of Caesarea, Bellum Vandalicum, vii.1–3. Chronica gallica anno 511 (n. 650, s.a. 472) records both versions.
↑ Halsall, Guy (2007). Barbarian migrations and the Roman West, 376-568. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.282.
↑ Amory, Patrick (1997). People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489–554. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-51152-306-9. pg. 69
↑ Wolfram, Herwig (1988). History of the Goths. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-05259-5. pg. 283
↑ Kelly, J.N.D.; Walsh, Michael J. (2010). "John VIII". A Dictionary of Popes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199295814.001.0001. ISBN9780199295814. (Note: This source disputes the claim John was assassinated).
↑ Popkin, Jeremy D. (2011). A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution. Viewpoints: Themes and Interpretations in Latin American History. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. p.142. ISBN9781405198219.
↑ Moss, Walter G. (2002). Russia in the Age of Alexander II, Tolstoy and Dostoevsky. Anthem Series on Russian, East European and Eurasian Studies. London: Anthem Press. pp.237–238. ISBN9781898855590.
↑ Rosen, Fred (2016). Murdering the President: Alexander Graham Bell and the Race to Save James Garfield. Lincoln, Neb.: Potomac Books. pp.124–125. ISBN9781612347684.
↑ Schlesinger, Stephen; Kinzer, Stephen (2005). Bitter Fruit: The Story of the American Coup in Guatemala (Revised and Expandeded.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp.235–236. ISBN067401930X.
↑ Dallek, Robert (2011). John F. Kennedy (Abridgeded.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp.65–66. ISBN978-0-19-975436-6.
Vagi, David L. (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C.- A.D. 480. Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN978-1-57958-316-3.
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