List of kingdoms and empires in African history

Last updated

A kingdom is a state with a king or queen as its head. [1] An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant centre and subordinate peripheries". [2]

Contents

There were many kingdoms and empires in all regions of the continent of Africa throughout history, despite popular understanding often being that the continent lacked large states or meaningful complex political organisation. Whether rooted in Eurocentrism, racism, or ignorance, famous historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper have argued that African history is not characterised by state formation or hierarchical structures. In fact, the nature of political organisation varied greatly across the continent, from the immensely hierarchical kingdoms of the Great Lakes, to the sacral Congolese empires and expansive West Sudanic empires. [3]

The vast majority of states included in this list existed prior to the Scramble for Africa (c. 1880–1914) when, driven by the Second Industrial Revolution, almost all of the continent came under the control of European powers. Traditional power structures were often utilised by the colonial authorities.

Some kingdoms still exist today as non–sovereign monarchies. The roles, powers, and influence of non–sovereign monarchs throughout Africa vary greatly depending on the state. In some states, such as Angola, the local monarch may play an integral role in the local governing council of a region. [4] [5] They are often regarded as custodians of tradition and culture, and in some cases, play an important role in local religious activities. [6] [7] On the flipside their powers may be curtailed, as happened in 2022 with Wadai in Chad, [8] or had their positions abolished, as happened in Tanzania in 1962, [9] and in 1966 in Uganda with Buganda, which was later restored in 1993. In this list they are labelled (NSM).

There are only three current sovereign monarchies in Africa; [10] two of which (Lesotho and Morocco) are constitutional monarchies where the rulers are bound by laws and customs in the exercise of their powers, while one (Eswatini) is an absolute monarchy where the monarch rules without bounds. Sovereign monarchies are labelled (SM).

There have been a number of autocrats in Africa who invoked hereditary succession in order to preserve their regimes, [11] such as the Bongos of Gabon, [12] Gnassingbés of Togo, [13] or Aptidon–Guelleh of Djibouti, [14] generating the term monarchical republic. [12] These have been tentatively included due to their similarities to, and possibly even taking inspiration from, the institution of monarchy and are labelled (MR).

Criteria

Only kingdoms and tribal kingdoms as per Elman Service's classifications that were once independent are included, excluding bands, tribes, and most chiefdoms. Dates have [one date for loss of independence] / [one date for loss of nominal rule]. Additional information such as notable articles may accompany entries.

The intercontinental Islamic empires that covered parts of North and Northeast Africa are not included, and should be discussed as part of the Muslim world, however the residual fragments that had their capital on the continent of Africa are.

History periods and sources

4th millennium BC – 6th century AD

Outside of North Africa, most of African political history relating to this time period has been pieced together through archaeological discoveries. There is very little written information about Sub–Saharan Africa at this time, besides that from outsiders such as "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea", dated to the 1st century AD, and the accounts of Claudius Ptolemy, dated to the 2nd century AD, both illuminating the East African coast. The delicate threads of oral tradition generally do not go back this far.

7th century – 15th century AD

Sub–Saharan African societies have broadly been labelled "oral civilisations", contrasted with "literate civilisations", due to the emphasis placed on oral tradition and the important place it has in their cultures. As such, most of African history predating the colonial period has been preserved orally, passed down from generation to generation, and served a different function to the academic discipline of history. Perhaps the most famous examples of this is the Griots of West Africa, such as Balla Fasséké in the Mali Empire, who held largely hereditary positions. One of their roles was to study and memorise their people's history and serve in the king's court as an advisor, to represent the past, and to identify lessons. Whilst many oral traditions refer to this particular time period, they often take a mythological and parabolic form, and are over time condensed until eventually crystallising into a cliché, limiting but not eradicating their usefulness to modern historians, as displayed in the oral traditions about the Empire of Kitara, an empire in the Great Lakes region that existed from around the 10th century to 15th century AD.

Following the spread of Islam to Africa in the 7th century AD, there were many more written histories, most notably from Ibn Khaldun, but also from al–Masudi, al–Bakri, al–Idrisi, Yaqut, Abulfeda, al–Umari, and Ibn Battuta. Ge'ez literature also began covering history from the 14th to 16th century.

16th century AD – present

There is a wealth of oral traditions referring to the modern period that offer important and often crucial information for modern historians. There were high levels of scepticism regarding oral histories among historians of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries leading to their obscurity, and whilst valid criticisms remain about their limitations, modern attitudes towards oral traditions as historical sources continue to improve. [15]

Increased trade with Europe and an influx of Catholic missions from the 16th century onwards produced more written information which supplemented the Arabic literature, however African historiography as we view it today didn't take off until the 19th century under increased European interest in the region. These histories have been invaluable to modern historians, however they were often written from the colonial perspective under the pretence of Western superiority, occasionally for the purpose of disseminating colonial narratives. This has provided the fuel for anti–African bias, particularly regarding their history, which still persists in many countries today. [16] [17]

Comparison between kingdoms

Historian Jan Vansina (1962) discusses the classification of Sub–Saharan African Kingdoms, mostly of Central, South and East Africa, with some additional data on West African (Sahelian) Kingdoms distinguishing five types, by decreasing centralization of power: [18]

  1. Despotic Kingdoms (D): Kingdoms where the king controlled the internal and external affairs directly and personally appointed overseers. The king kept a monopoly on the use of force. Examples include Rwanda, Nkore/Ankole, and Kongo of the 16th century.
  2. Regal Kingdoms (R): Kingdoms where the king controlled the external affairs directly, and the internal affairs via a system of overseers where most local chiefs kept their positions but not their autonomy after conquest. The king and most of his administration belonged to the same religion, group and/or family.
  3. Incorporative Kingdoms (I): Kingdoms where the king only controlled the external affairs and the nucleus with no permanent administrative links between him and the chiefs of the provinces. The local chiefs of the provinces were left largely undisturbed after conquest. Examples are the Bamileke, Luba and the Lozi.
  4. Aristocratic Kingdoms (A): The only link between central authority and the provinces was payment of tribute which symbolised subordination. These kingdoms were kept together by the superior military strength of the nucleus. This type is rather common in Africa, examples include Kongo of the 17th century, Kazembe, Kuba, the Ha, and Chagga states of the 18th century.
  5. Federations (F): Kingdoms where the external affairs were regulated by a council of elders headed by the king, who is simply primus inter pares , such as in the Ashanti Union. (Confederations are not included; see "List of confederations").

Almost all sultanates embody (R) due to the nature of the Islamic version of kingship. [19] For this reason, and in the interest of highlighting differences, classifications for sultanates will only reference the relationship between the sultan and their administration.

Classifications not given as examples by Vansina are open to scrutiny (here). Ones where two classifications are given and joined by an "and" mean that the kingdom had elements from both present; [a] refers to the king's place and power, particularly in the nucleus, whilst [b] refers to the relationship between king and administration.

List of African kingdoms

A list of known kingdoms and empires on the African continent that we have record of.

North Africa

4th millennium BC – 6th century AD

Old and Middle Kingdoms of Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt old and middle kingdom-en.svg
Old and Middle Kingdoms of Ancient Egypt

7th century – 15th century AD

Almoravid Empire Almoravid Empire-en.jpg
Almoravid Empire
Fatimid Caliphate Fatimid Caliphate.PNG
Fatimid Caliphate

16th century AD – present

Senussi Order including sphere of influence circa 1880 Senussi Map3.png
Senussi Order including sphere of influence circa 1880
Domains of the Aksumite Empire and the Adal Sultanate. Adal.PNG
Domains of the Aksumite Empire and the Adal Sultanate.

East Africa

4th millennium BC – 6th century AD

7th century – 15th century AD

Sultanate of Kilwa 1310 AD Sultanate of Kilwa.png
Sultanate of Kilwa 1310 AD
African Great Lakes Kingdoms, c.1880 African Great Lakes Kingdoms, c.1880.png
African Great Lakes Kingdoms, c.1880

16th century AD – present

Horn Of Africa 1915 Horn Of Africa 1915 english version.svg
Horn Of Africa 1915
13th-century Africa - Map of the main trade routes and states, kingdoms and empires. African slave trade.png
13th–century Africa – Map of the main trade routes and states, kingdoms and empires.

West Africa

4th millennium BC – 6th century AD

7th century – 15th century AD

West Africa in 1625 AD WestAfrica1625.png
West Africa in 1625 AD

16th century AD – present

West Africa circa 1875 Africa de l'Oest en 1875-es.svg
West Africa circa 1875
Fula jihad circa 1830 Fula jihad states map general c1830.png
Fula jihad circa 1830
Sokoto Caliphate 19th century Sokoto Sultanate (cropped).png
Sokoto Caliphate 19th century

Central Africa

Central East Africa circa 1750 AD CentralEastAfrica1750.png
Central East Africa circa 1750 AD
UN Macroregion of Central Africa UN Macroregion Central Africa.svg
UN Macroregion of Central Africa

4th millennium BC – 6th century AD

7th century – 15th century AD

16th century AD – present

Kingdoms in Angola circa 1760 AD Os cinco grandes reinos ovimbundos - Sec. XVIII.svg
Kingdoms in Angola circa 1760 AD

Southern Africa

7th century – 15th century AD

Mutapa and surrounding kingdoms circa 1747 AD 1455808337AnewandaccuratemapofthesouthernpartsofAfricaREDUCED.jpg
Mutapa and surrounding kingdoms circa 1747 AD

16th century AD – present

Unplaced or undated kingdoms/sultanates

See also

Bibliography

Further reading

Related Research Articles

Humans emerged out of Africa between 0.5 and 1.8 million years ago. This was followed by the emergence of modern humans in East Africa around 300,000–250,000 years ago. In the 4th millenium BC written history arose in Ancient Egypt, and later in Nubia's Kush, the Horn of Africa's Dʿmt, and Ifrikiya's Carthage. Between around 3000 BC and 1000 AD, the Bantu expansion swept from north-western Central Africa across much of sub-Saharan Africa, laying the foundations for states in Central, Eastern, and Southern regions. In most African societies the oral word is revered, and as such they have generally recorded their history orally. This has led anthropologists to term them oral civilisations, contrasted with literate civilisations which pride the written word. Oral tradition often remained the preferred method of recordation in cases when a writing system was adapted or developed; for example the oral recordation of the Kouroukan Fouga in the Mali Empire while having adapted the Arabic script to be used in scholarly pursuits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kanem–Bornu Empire</span> Empire around Lake Chad, Africa, c. 700–1380

The Kanem–Bornu Empire existed in areas which are now part of Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, Libya and Chad. It was known to the Arabian geographers as the Kanem Empire from the 8th century AD onward and lasted as the independent kingdom of Bornu until 1900.

A monarch is a head of state for life or until abdication, and therefore the head of state of a monarchy. A monarch may exercise the highest authority and power in the state, or others may wield that power on behalf of the monarch. Usually a monarch either personally inherits the lawful right to exercise the state's sovereign rights or is selected by an established process from a family or cohort eligible to provide the nation's monarch. Alternatively, an individual may proclaim oneself monarch, which may be backed and legitimated through acclamation, right of conquest or a combination of means.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sultan</span> Noble title with several historical meanings

Sultan is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun سلطة sulṭah, meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain rulers who claimed almost full sovereignty without claiming the overall caliphate, or to refer to a powerful governor of a province within the caliphate. The adjectival form of the word is "sultanic", and the state and territories ruled by a sultan, as well as his office, are referred to as a sultanate.

According to the definition by George L. Hart of the University of California, Berkeley, a classical language is any language with an independent literary tradition and a large body of ancient written literature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sultanate of Golconda</span> Kingdom in Deccan India

The Sultanate of Golconda was an early modern kingdom in southern India, ruled by the Persianate, Shia Islamic Qutb Shahi dynasty of Turkoman origin. After the decline of the Bahmani Sultanate, the Sultanate of Golconda was established in 1518 by Quli Qutb Shah, as one of the five Deccan sultanates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medieval India</span> Period of South Asian history

Medieval India refers to a long period of post-classical history of the Indian subcontinent between the "ancient period" and "modern period". It is usually regarded as running approximately from the break-up of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE to the start of the early modern period in 1526 with the start of the Mughal Empire, although some historians regard it as both starting and finishing later than these points. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the early medieval and late medieval eras.

The Walashma dynasty was a medieval Muslim dynasty of the Horn of Africa founded in Ifat. Founded in the 13th century, it governed the Ifat and Adal Sultanates in what are present-day, Somalia, Djibouti, Eritrea and eastern Ethiopia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam in Africa</span> Islam

Islam in Africa is the continent's second most widely professed faith behind Christianity. Africa was the first continent into which Islam spread from the Middle East, during the early 7th century CE. Almost one-third of the world's Muslim population resides in Africa. Muslims crossed current Djibouti and Somalia to seek refuge in present-day Eritrea and Ethiopia during the Hijrah ("Migration") to the Christian Kingdom of Aksum. Like the vast majority (90%) of Muslims in the world, most Muslims in Africa are also Sunni Muslims; the complexity of Islam in Africa is revealed in the various schools of thought, traditions, and voices in many African countries. Many African ethnicities, mostly in the northern half of the continent, consider Islam as their traditional religion. The practice of Islam on the continent is not static and is constantly being reshaped by prevalent social, economic, and political conditions. Generally Islam in Africa often adapted to African cultural contexts and belief systems forming Africa's own orthodoxies.

The Nayaka dynasties refers to a group of Hindu dynasties who emerged during the Kakatiya dynasty and the Vijayanagara Empire period in South India. Many of these dynasties, such as the Madurai Nayaks and the Thanjavur Nayaks, were originally military governors under the Vijayanagara Empire, who, after the Battle of Talikota, declared themselves independent and established their own polities. Many of them were Telugu-speaking Balijas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Legends of Africa</span> African mythology

The Legends of Africa reflect a wide-ranging series of kings, queens, chiefs and other leaders from across the African continent including Mali, Benin, Ghana, Nigeria, Congo, Ethiopia, Eritrea and South Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Aleppo</span> Historic city centre of Aleppo, Syria

The Ancient City of Aleppo is the historic city centre of Aleppo, Syria. Prior to the Syrian Civil War, many districts of the ancient city remained essentially unchanged since they were initially constructed between the 11th and 16th centuries. Being subjected to constant invasions and political instability, the inhabitants of the city were forced to build economically independent cell-like quarters and districts, most of which were delineated along ethnic and religious lines. These urban subdistricts, along with the ancient walled city that they surround, comprise an approximate area of 350 hectares and are home to more than 120,000 residents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Northern Nigeria</span>

The history of Northern Nigeria covers the history of the region form pre-historic times to the modern period of Northern Nigerian state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Architecture of the Deccan sultanates</span> Islamic architecture of the Deccan Plateau, India

The Deccan sultanates were five early modern kingdoms, namely Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar, which ruled the Deccan Plateau for part of the 15th, and the majority of the 16th–17th centuries. Their architecture was a regional variant of Indo-Islamic architecture, and influenced by the styles of the Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal architecture, but sometimes also influenced from Persia and Central Asia. Hindu temple architecture in the same areas had very different styles.

References

  1. ↑ "Dictionary.com | Kingdom". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2024-10-25.
  2. ↑ Howe 2002, p. 30.
  3. ↑ Dalziel, Nigel; MacKenzie, John M, eds. (2016-01-11). "African kingdoms and empires". The Encyclopedia of Empire (1 ed.). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe378. ISBN   978-1-118-44064-3.
  4. ↑ Florêncio, Fernando (2017-08-04). No Reino da Toupeira: Autoridades Tradicionais do M'balundu e o Estado Angolano [In the Mole Kingdom: Traditional M'balundu Authorities and the Angolan State]. ebook'IS (in Portuguese). Lisboa: Centro de Estudos Internacionais. pp. 79–175. ISBN   978-989-8862-32-7. Archived from the original on 2021-07-28. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
  5. ↑ Orock, Rogers Tabe Egbe (2014). "Welcoming the ' Fon of Fons ': Anglophone Elites and the Politics of Hosting Cameroon's Head of State". Africa. 84 (2): 226–245. doi:10.1017/S0001972013000776. ISSN   0001-9720. S2CID   144143841. Archived from the original on 2023-05-25. Retrieved 2023-06-21.
  6. ↑ Butler, Stuart. "The voodoo priests, kings and ghosts of Benin". www.bbc.com. Archived from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2023-06-21.
  7. ↑ "Oba Ewuare II: A quintessential monarch at 66". The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News. 2019-10-18. Archived from the original on 2023-06-21. Retrieved 2023-06-21.
  8. ↑ "Chad: protests over Ouaddai sultanate autonomy". CounterVortex. 2022-01-31. Archived from the original on 2023-06-19. Retrieved 2023-06-21.
  9. ↑ "Tanzania chiefs and monarchs". The African Royal Families. 13 June 2023. Archived from the original on 20 March 2024. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
  10. ↑ Mfonobong Nsehe. "The 5 Richest Kings In Africa - page 2". Forbes. Archived from the original on 7 July 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  11. ↑ Brownlee, J. (2007). "Hereditary Succession in Modern Autocracies". World Politics. 59 (4). Cambridge University Press: 595–628. doi:10.1353/wp.2008.0002. S2CID   154483430. Archived from the original on 2024-03-01. Retrieved 2024-03-01.
  12. 1 2 3 Mengara, Daniel (2020). "The Making of a Monarchical Republic: The Undoing of Presidential Term Limits in Gabon Under Omar Bongo". The Politics of Challenging Presidential Term Limits in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 65–104. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-40810-7_3. ISBN   978-3-030-40809-1. S2CID   216244948. Archived from the original on 2024-03-01. Retrieved 2024-03-01.
  13. 1 2 Osei, Anja (2018). "Like father, like son? Power and influence across two Gnassingbé presidencies in Togo". Democratization. 25 (8): 1460–1480. doi:10.1080/13510347.2018.1483916. Archived from the original on 2024-01-05. Retrieved 2024-03-01.
  14. 1 2 Bezabeh, Samson (2023). Djibouti: A political history (PDF). Lynne Rienner. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-10-14. Retrieved 2024-03-14.
  15. ↑ Belcher, Stephen (2018). "Oral Traditions as Sources". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.363. ISBN   978-0-19-027773-4. Archived from the original on 2019-10-23. Retrieved 2024-03-20.
  16. ↑ Bashi, Vilna (2004). "Globalized anti-blackness: Transnationalising Western immigration law, policy, and practice". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 27 (4). Routledge: 584–606. doi:10.1080/01491987042000216726. Archived from the original on 2024-03-23. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  17. ↑ Modood, Tariq; Sealy, Thomas (2022). "Beyond Euro-Americancentric Forms of Racism and Anti-racism". The Political Quarterly. 93 (3). Wiley-Blackwell: 433–441. doi:10.1111/1467-923X.13138. hdl: 1983/af486eb5-f71d-4802-a863-c6dd259f0f83 . Archived from the original on 2024-03-23. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Vansina, Jan (1962). "A Comparison of African Kingdoms". Africa: Journal of the International African Institute. 33 (4). Cambridge University Press: 332–333. doi:10.2307/1157437. JSTOR   1157437. S2CID   143572050. Archived from the original on 2023-03-30. Retrieved 2024-03-09.
  19. ↑ Rizvi, S (1981). "Kingship in Islam: a Historical Analysis". Kingship In Asia and early America (PDF). Colegio de Mexico. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-03-20. Retrieved 2024-03-20.
  20. ↑ Wilkinson, Toby (2010). "The Early Dynastic Period". A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN   978-1-4443-2006-0. Archived from the original on 2024-03-21. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
  21. ↑ Baud, Michel (2010). "The Old Kingdom". A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN   978-1-4443-2006-0. Archived from the original on 2024-03-21. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
  22. ↑ Willems, Harco (2010). "The Middle Kingdom: The Twelfth Dynasty". A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN   978-1-4443-2006-0. Archived from the original on 2024-03-21. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
  23. ↑ Jakobielski, Stefan (1988). "Christian Nubia at the height of its civilisation". General History of Africa: Volume 3 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. p. 194. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-22. Retrieved 2024-02-22.
  24. 1 2 Mahjoubi, Ammar; Salama, Pierre (1981). "The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2024-02-21.
  25. ↑ Steward., Evans (1996). The age of Justinian : the circumstances of imperial power. Routledge. ISBN   0-415-02209-6. OCLC   797873981.
  26. 1 2 3 Kapteijns, Lidwien (1983). "Dār Silā, the Sultanate in Precolonial Times, 1870-1916 (Le sultanat du Dār Silā à l'époque précoloniale, 1870-1916)". Cahiers d'Études Africaines. 23 (92): 447–470. doi:10.3406/cea.1983.2239. JSTOR   4391880. Archived from the original on 2024-03-15. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
  27. ↑ Talbi, Mohamed (1988). "The independence of the Maghrib". General History of Africa: Volume 3 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. p. 251. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-22. Retrieved 2024-02-22.
  28. ↑ Saidi, O. (1984). "The unification of the Maghreb under the Alhomads". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. pp. 45–53. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  29. ↑ Hrbek, Ivan (1984). "The disintrigation of the political unity of the Maghreb". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. p. 84. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  30. 1 2 3 Kapteijns, Lidwien (1983). "The Emergence of a Sudanic State: Dar Masalit, 1874-1905". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 16 (4). Boston University African Studies Center: 601–613. doi:10.2307/218268. JSTOR   218268. Archived from the original on 2024-02-12. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
  31. ↑ Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-01-19. Retrieved 2024-03-09.
  32. ↑ LaViolette, Adria; Fleisher, Jeffrey (2009). "The Urban History of a Rural Place: Swahili Archaeology on Pemba Island, Tanzania, 700-1500 AD". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 42 (3). Boston University African Studies Center: 433–455. JSTOR   40646777. Archived from the original on 2024-03-15. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
  33. ↑ Smidt, Wolbert (2011). "Preliminary Report on an Ethnohistorical Research Among the Ch'aré People, a Hidden Ethnic Splinter Group in Western Tigray" (PDF). Northeast African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. 1: 115–116. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-13.
  34. ↑ Buchanan, Carole Ann (1974). The Kitara complex: the historical tradition of western Uganda to the 16th century (PDF) (Thesis). Indiana University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-05-21. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  35. ↑ Beattie, John (1959). "Rituals of Nyoro Kingship". Africa: Journal of the International African Institute. 29 (2). Cambridge University Press: 134–145. doi:10.2307/1157516. JSTOR   1157516. S2CID   143264151. Archived from the original on 2024-02-20. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  36. ↑ Sutton, J. (1993). "The Antecedents of the Interlacustrine Kingdoms". The Journal of African History. 34 (1). Cambridge University Press: 33–64. doi:10.1017/S0021853700032990. S2CID   162101322. Archived from the original on 2024-02-20. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  37. ↑ Uzoigwe, G. (2013). "Bunyoro-Kitara Revisited: A Reevaluation of the Decline and Diminishment of an African Kingdom". Journal of Asian and African Studies. 48 (1). Sage Publications: 16–34. doi:10.1177/0021909611432094. S2CID   145011751. Archived from the original on 2024-02-21. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  38. 1 2 3 4 5 Ogot, Bethwell Allan (1984). "The Great Lakes region". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  39. 1 2 3 Chekroun, Amelie; Hirsch, Bertrand (2020). "The Sultanates of Medieval Ethiopia". A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea. Brill Publishers. Archived from the original on 2024-03-17. Retrieved 2024-03-17.
  40. ↑ Cerulli, Enrico (1988). "Ethiopia's relations with the Muslim world". General History of Africa: Volume 3. UNESCO Publishing. p. 579. Archived from the original on 2023-12-02. Retrieved 2024-03-13.
  41. 1 2 Ochieng, William (1992). "The interior of East Africa: The peoples of Kenya and Tanzania, 1500-1800". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  42. 1 2 Dramani-Issifou, Zakari (1988). "Stages in the development of Islam and its dissemination in Africa". General History of Africa: Volume 3 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-22. Retrieved 2024-02-22.
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Webster, James; Chretien, Jean-Pierre (1992). "The Great Lakes region: 1500-1800". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  44. ↑ Adefuye, Ade (1976). "Palwo Economy, Society and Politics". Transafrican Journal of History. 5 (2). Gideon Were Productions: 1–20. JSTOR   24520233. Archived from the original on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  45. ↑ "Songora People and their Culture in Uganda". Archived from the original on 31 May 2023. Retrieved 18 Feb 2024.
  46. 1 2 Katoke, Israel (1970). The Making of the Karagwe Kingdom (PDF). East African Publishing House. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-05-21. Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  47. ↑ Betbeder, Paul (1971). "The Kingdom of Buzinza". Journal of World History. 13 (1). University of Hawaii Press. Archived from the original on 2024-03-08. Retrieved 2024-03-07.
  48. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kent, Raymond (1992). "Madagascar and the islands of the Indian Ocean". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  49. ↑ González-Ruibal, Alfredo (2024-03-01). "Landscapes of Memory and Power: The Archaeology of a Forgotten Kingdom in Ethiopia". African Archaeological Review. 41 (1): 71–95. doi: 10.1007/s10437-024-09575-8 . ISSN   1572-9842.
  50. ↑ Pirouet, Louise (1978). "Black Evangelists: the Spread of Christianity in Uganda". The Journal of African History. 20 (2). Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  51. 1 2 3 Uzoigwe, Godfrey; Denoon, Donald (1975). "A History of Kigezi in South-West Uganda". International Journal of African Historical Studies. 8. Boston University African Studies Center. doi:10.2307/217613. JSTOR   217613. Archived from the original on 2024-03-01. Retrieved 2024-03-01.
  52. 1 2 Kennedy, Moindi (2023). "Kingdoms, Politics, and State Formation in Pre-colonial Kenya". The Palgrave Handbook of Kenyan History. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 55–67. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-09487-3_6. ISBN   978-3-031-09486-6. Archived from the original on 2024-03-10. Retrieved 2024-03-10.
  53. ↑ Huggins, Chris; Mastaki, Christol (2019). "The political economy of land law and policy reform in the Democratic Republic of Congo: an institutional bricolage approach". The Canadian Journal of Development Studies. 41 (2). University of Toronto Press: 260–278. doi:10.1080/02255189.2019.1683519. S2CID   211315785. Archived from the original on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  54. ↑ Katoke, Israel (1970). "The country". The Making of the Karagwe Kingdom (PDF). East African Publishing House. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-05-21. Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  55. ↑ Fosbrooke, H. (1934). "Some Aspects of the Kimwani Fishing Culture, with Comparative Notes on Alien Methods". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 64: 1–22. doi:10.2307/2843944. JSTOR   2843944. Archived from the original on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  56. ↑ Medard, Henri; Doyle, Shane (16 November 2007). Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa. Longhouse Publishing Services. ISBN   978-0-8214-4574-7. Archived from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  57. ↑ Weiss, Brad (1996). The Making and Unmaking of the Haya Lived World. Duke University Press. ISBN   0-8223-1722-2. Archived from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-18.
  58. ↑ Scherer, J.H. (1959). "The Ha of Tanganyika". Anthropos. 54 (5). Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH: 841–904. JSTOR   40453639. Archived from the original on 2023-06-24. Retrieved 2024-02-17.
  59. ↑ McMaster, Mary (2005). "Language Shift and its Reflection in African Archaeology: Cord rouletting in the Uele and Interlacustrine regions". Journal of the British Institute in Eastern Africa. 40 (1): 49. doi:10.1080/00672700509480413. S2CID   162229329. Archived from the original on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  60. ↑ de Barros, Philip (2012). "The Bassar Chiefdom in the context of theories of political economy". Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa (PDF). Cambridge University Press. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
  61. ↑ Ingham, Kenneth (1974). The Kingdom of Toro in Uganda. Routledge. ISBN   978-1-003-80149-8. Archived from the original on 2024-03-12. Retrieved 2024-03-12.
  62. ↑ Salt, Henry (1816). A Voyage to Abyssinia. M. Carey.
  63. ↑ Yasin, Mohammed (2008). "Political History of the Afar in Ethiopia and Eritrea". Africa Spectrum. 43 (1). Sage Publications: 44. JSTOR   40175221. Archived from the original on 2023-07-18. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  64. ↑ "Geothermal for Peace: Exploration and development of the large Bidu-Dubbi geothermal prospect along the border of Ethiopia (Bidu Woreda, Afar Regional State) and Eritrea (Southern Denkhalya subregion, Southern Red Sea Region)". Archived from the original on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  65. ↑ Posnansky, Merrick. "The societies of Africa south of the Sahara in the Early Iron Age". General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing. p. 729. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2024-02-21.
  66. ↑ Cissoko, Sékéné Mody (1984). "The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th century". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Pubishing. pp. 196–202. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  67. ↑ Nwauwa, Apollos (1995). "The Evolution of the Aro Confederacy in Southeastern Nigeria, 1690-1720. A Theoretical Synthesis of State Formation Process in Africa". Anthropos. 90 (4/6). Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft: 353–364. JSTOR   40463184. Archived from the original on 2023-07-20. Retrieved 2024-03-10.
  68. 1 2 Adamu, Mahdi (1984). "The Hausa and their neighbours in central Sudan". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  69. 1 2 Niane, Djibril Tamsir (1984). "Introduction". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  70. 1 2 Lewicki, Tadeusz (1988). "The role of the Sahara and Saharians in relationships between North and South". General History of Africa: Volume 3 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-22. Retrieved 2024-02-22.
  71. ↑ Smith, Robert Sydney (1988). Kingdoms of the Yoruba. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN   978-0-299-11604-0. Archived from the original on 2024-03-14. Retrieved 2024-03-14.
  72. 1 2 3 4 5 Izard, Michel (1984). "The peoples and kingdoms of the Niger Bend and the Volta basin from the 12th to 16th century". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  73. 1 2 Izard, Michel (1992). "From the Niger to the Volta". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  74. 1 2 Niane, Djibril Tamsir (1984). "Mali and the second Mandigo expansion". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  75. 1 2 3 4 5 Abu Boahen, Albert (1992). "The states and cultures of the Lower Guinea coast". General History of Africa: Volume 5 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-29. Retrieved 2024-02-29.
  76. ↑ Drucker-Brown, Susan (1981). "The Structure of the Mamprusi Kingdom and the Cult of Naam". The Study of State Volume 1. Mouton Publishers. ISBN   90-279-3348-0. Archived from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  77. ↑ Saine, Abdoulaye (2012). Culture and Customs of Gambia. Greenwood. pp. 2, 47–48. ISBN   978-0-313-35911-8. Archived from the original on 2024-03-23. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  78. ↑ Person, Yves (1984). "The coastal peoples: From Casamance to the Ivory Coast lagoons". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. pp. 313–314. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  79. 1 2 3 Kipre, Pierre (1984). "From the Ivory Coast lagoons to the Volta". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  80. ↑ Chouin, Gerard (2002). "Sacred Groves in History: Pathways to the Social Shaping of Forest Landscapes in Coastal Ghana" (PDF). IDS Bulletin. 33 (1). Institute of Development Studies. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-11-14. Retrieved 2024-02-29.
  81. ↑ Abitbol, Michel (1992). "The end of the Songhay empire". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. pp. 157–158. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  82. ↑ Wondji, Christophe (1992). "The states and cultures of the Upper Guinea coast". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. pp. 190–197. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  83. ↑ Mark, Peter (1999). "The evolution of 'Portuguese' identity: Luso-Africans on the Upper Guinea coast from the sixteenth to the early nineteenth century" (PDF). The Journal of African History. 40 (2). Cambridge University Press: 173–191. doi:10.1017/S0021853799007422. PMID   21970008. S2CID   161084701. Archived from the original on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  84. ↑ Amali, Idris (1997). "Alekwu Poetry as a Source of Historical Reconstruction: The Pursuit of Idoma-Otukpo Origin, Genealogy and Migration" (PDF). Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies. 25 (3). James S. Coleman African Studies Center, UCLA. doi:10.5070/F7253016633.
  85. ↑ Jones, D. (1962). "Jakpa and the Foundation of Gonja". Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana. 6: 1–29. JSTOR   41405749. Archived from the original on 2024-02-06. Retrieved 2024-03-10.
  86. ↑ Wycliff, Samuel; Wajiga, Afordia (2022). "Slavery and Slave Trade in Kilba (Huba) Kingdom of Northern Nigeria, c.1500-1904 AD". Nigerian Journal of Arts and Humanities. 2 (1).
  87. ↑ Alagoa, Ebiegberi (1992). "Fon and Yoruba: the Niger delta and Cameroon". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. p. 223. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  88. 1 2 3 Barry, Boubacar (1992). "Senegambia from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century: evolution of the Wolof, Sereer and Tukuloor". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  89. ↑ Asiwaju, AI (1979). "The Aja-speaking Peoples of Nigeria: A Note on their Origins, Settlement and Cultural Adaptation up to 1945". Africa. 49 (1): 15–28. doi:10.2307/1159502. JSTOR   1159502. S2CID   145468899. Archived from the original on February 12, 2024. Retrieved February 2, 2024.
  90. ↑ Kiriana, Herman (2011). "Sites of pain and shame as heritage discourses". Managing Heritage in Africa: Who Cares?. Routledge. ISBN   978-1-315-47295-9. Archived from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  91. ↑ Johnson, Wesley (1971). 'The emergence of Black politics in Senegal:' the struggle for power in the four communes, 1900-1920. California: Stanford University Press. pp. 11–12. ISBN   978-0-8047-0783-1 . Retrieved 2024-05-09.
  92. ↑ Fyle, C. Magbaily (1979). The Solima Yalunka Kingdom:Pre-colonial Politics and Society. Nyakon Publishers. Archived from the original on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  93. 1 2 3 4 Quinn, Charlotte (1971). "A Nineteenth Fulbe State". The Journal of African History. 12 (3). Cambridge University Press: 427–440. doi:10.1017/S0021853700010860. JSTOR   181042. Archived from the original on 2024-03-16. Retrieved 2024-03-14.
  94. ↑ Goerg, Odile (2006). "Chieftainships between Past and Present: From City to Suburb and Back in Colonial Conakry, 1890s-1950s". Africa Today. 52 (4). Indiana University Press: 3–27. doi:10.1353/at.2006.0044. JSTOR   4187737. Archived from the original on 2024-03-16. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
  95. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Touray, Ensa (2016). "Socio-Political Transformation of the South Bank of the Gambia: Impact of Ethnic and Clerical Migrations on the South Bank from 1850 to 1889" (PDF). International Journal of Culture and History. 2 (1). Macrothink Institute: 59–64. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-11-18. Retrieved 2024-03-14.
  96. 1 2 Touray, Ensa (2017). "Ninetieth Century Economic Change and the Crisis in the Southern Senegambia: Islamic Militancy and the British Intervention in the Lower Gambia Region of Jarra, Kiang and Foni" (PDF). Global Partners in Education Journal. 6 (1): 140–160. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-03-14. Retrieved 2024-03-14.
  97. ↑ Wai Andah, Bassey (1988). "The Guinean belt: The peoples between Mount Cameroon and the Ivory Coast". General History of Africa:Volume 3 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. p. 525. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-22. Retrieved 2024-02-22.
  98. ↑ Lange, Dierk (1984). "The kingdoms and peoples of Chad". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. p. 248. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  99. ↑ Barkindo, Bawuro (1992). "Kanem-Borno: its relations with the Mediterranean sea, Bagirmi and other states in the Chad basin". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. pp. 255–256. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  100. ↑ Chilver, E.; Kaberry, P. (1951). "The Kingdom of Kom in West Cameroon". West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford U.P., for the International African Institute. ISBN   978-0-19-724187-5.
  101. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Thornton, John K., ed. (2020), "The Development of States in West Central Africa to 1540", A History of West Central Africa to 1850, New Approaches to African History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 16–55, ISBN   978-1-107-56593-7 , retrieved 2024-09-21
  102. ↑ Thornton, John (2024). "Mwene Muji: A Medieval Empire in Central Africa?". The Journal of African History. 65 (1): 30–46. doi:10.1017/S0021853724000161. ISSN   0021-8537.
  103. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Thornton, John K. (2020). A History of West Central Africa to 1850. New Approaches to African History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-1-107-12715-9.
  104. ↑ Ndaywel, Isidore (1992). "The political system of the Luba and Lunda: its emergence and expansion". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  105. ↑ M'Bokolo, Elikia (1992). "From the Cameroon grasslands to the Upper Nile". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. pp. 271–272. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  106. 1 2 3 4 Ndaywel, Isidore (1992). "The political system of the Luba and Lunda: its emergence and expansion". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  107. 1 2 3 Vansina, Jan (1984). "Equatorial Africa and Angola: Migrations and the emergence of the first states". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  108. ↑ Thornton, John K., ed. (2020), "The Development of States in West Central Africa to 1540", A History of West Central Africa to 1850, New Approaches to African History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 16–55, ISBN   978-1-107-56593-7 , retrieved 2024-10-13
  109. ↑ Childs, Gladwyn M (January 22, 2009). "The Kingdom of Wambu (Huambo): A Tentative Chronology". The Journal of African History. 5 (3): 367–379. doi:10.1017/S0021853700005077. S2CID   161250988. Archived from the original on September 13, 2019. Retrieved February 12, 2024.
  110. ↑ Birmingham, David (1981). "Western Central Africa before 1600". Central Africa to 1870: Zambezia, Zaire and the South Atlantic. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN   978-0-521-28444-8. Archived from the original on 2024-03-16. Retrieved 2024-03-16.
  111. ↑ Candido, Mariana (2013). An African Slaving Port and the Atlantic World: Benguela and Its Hinterland. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-1-107-01186-1. Archived from the original on 2024-02-25. Retrieved 2024-02-25.
  112. ↑ Jackson, Luala (2020). "A Pragmatic Analysis of Yaka Proverbs". International Journal of Social Sciences and Scientific Studies. 2 (4): 664–678. Archived from the original on 2024-03-07. Retrieved 2024-03-07.
  113. ↑ Morris, Brian (2014). "The Rise and Fall of the Yao Chiefdoms". The Society of Malawi Journal. 67 (1). Society of Malawi: Historical and Scientific: 5–15. JSTOR   24332663. Archived from the original on 2024-03-10. Retrieved 2024-03-10.
  114. 1 2 Luffin, Xavier (2004). "The Use of Arabic as a Written Language in Central Africa: The case of the Uele basin (Northern Congo) in the late nineteenth century". Sudanic Africa. 15. Brill: 145–177. JSTOR   25653417. Archived from the original on 2024-03-16. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
  115. ↑ Fagan, Brian Murray (1984). "The Zambezi and Limpopo basins: 1100-1500". General History of Africa: Volume 4 (PDF). UNESCO Publishing. pp. 533–534. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  116. ↑ Bhila, Hoyini (1992). "Southern Zambezi". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  117. 1 2 3 Phiri, Kings (1992). "The northern Zambezia-Lake Malawi region". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  118. ↑ Barendse, Rene (2002). The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century. Routledge. ISBN   978-1-317-45835-7. Archived from the original on 2024-03-12. Retrieved 2024-03-12.
  119. 1 2 3 Bhila, Hoyini (1971). The Manyika and the Portuguese 1575-1863 (Thesis). ProQuest   302652477. Archived from the original on 2024-03-12. Retrieved 2024-03-08– via ProQuest.
  120. ↑ Kalinga, Owen (1978). "The Establishment and Expansion of the Lambya Kingdom c1600-1750". African Studies Review. 21 (2). Cambridge University Press: 55–66. doi:10.2307/523661. JSTOR   523661. S2CID   144886221. Archived from the original on 2024-03-07. Retrieved 2024-03-07.
  121. ↑ Kalinga, Owen (1985). The Ngonde Kingdom - A History of the Ngonde Kingdom of Malawi. Mouton. ISBN   978-0-89925-041-0. Archived from the original on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  122. 1 2 Kalinga, Owen (1978). "The British and the Kyungus: a Study of the Changing Status of the Ngonde Rulers during the Period 1891-1933". Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria. 9 (3). Impact Publishers: 125–144. JSTOR   41854915. Archived from the original on 2024-03-07. Retrieved 2024-03-07.
  123. ↑ "Here is the list of all the chiefs in Zambia". Zambian Observer. 14 August 2023. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
  124. ↑ "Chief Mulekatembo, 15 others sue chief Mwene in leadership dispute". Diggers News. 15 April 2019. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
  125. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Williams, Frieda-Nela (1991). Precolonial Communities of Southwestern Africa: A history of Owambo Kingdoms 1600-1920 (PDF). National Archives of Namibia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-03-07. Retrieved 2024-03-07.
  126. ↑ Gustafsson, Kalle (2005). "The Trade in Slaves in Ovamboland, ca.1850-1910". African Economic History. 33 (33). University of Wisconsin Press: 31–68. JSTOR   4617604. Archived from the original on 2022-09-20. Retrieved 2024-03-07.
  127. ↑ Kreike, Emmanuel Hendrikus (1996). Recreating Eden: Agro-ecological change, food security and environmental diversity in southern Angola and northern Namibia, 1890–1960 (Thesis). ProQuest   304308677. Archived from the original on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  128. ↑ Mudenge, Stanislaus (1972). The Rozvi Empire and the Feira of Zumbo (Thesis). University of London Dissertations Publishing. pp. 100–139. ProQuest   1952723900. Archived from the original on 2024-03-16. Retrieved 2024-03-16.
  129. ↑ Abraham, D. (1961). "Maramuca: An Exercise in the Combined Use of Portuguese Records and Oral Tradition". The Journal of African History. 2 (2). Cambridge University Press: 218–220. doi:10.1017/S0021853700002425. S2CID   161133109. Archived from the original on 2018-06-14. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  130. ↑ Deflem, Mathieu (1999). "Warfare, Political Leadership, and State Formation: The Case of the Zulu Kingdom, 1808-1879". Ethnology. 38 (4). University of Pittsburgh Press: 371–391. doi:10.2307/3773913. JSTOR   3773913. PMID   20503540. Archived from the original on 2024-03-10. Retrieved 2024-03-10.
  131. 1 2 Haberland, Eike (1992). "The Horn of Africa". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.