Pasuruan Madurese is a Madurese dialect spoken in the eastern and the northern parts of Greater Pasuruan, both in Pasuruan City and Pasuruan Regency, also on the border of Mojokerto Regency.[1] In contrast to Situbondo and Bondowoso where Madurese is the majority language,[4] here Madurese is a minority language with a high level of admixture, especially with the Arekan Javanese dialect. Some villages only speak Madurese,[5] especially those located in remote areas and far from main roads, while other villages are bilingual with Javanese language.[6]
The traditions and culture of the Madurese people in Pasuruan are mostly passed down orally, such as folk tales, proverbs, advice, and life lessons conveyed in the Madurese language.[7] However, the lack of attention in formal education towards teaching regional languages, in this case Pasuruan Madurese, also exacerbates the extinction of the language. Madurese language, which should be one of the important pillars in local education for the Madurese people in Pasuruan, are often only taught in a limited way or even ignored in the school curriculum. As a result, the younger generation of Madurese people in Pasuruan is increasingly distanced from their own cultural and linguistic heritage, accelerating the process of diminishing the use of this language.[8]
History
In East Java, there is a multicultural region known as eastern salient of Java (Indonesian: Tapal Kudalit.'The Horseshoe'), which is an area that was not part of the Mataram Sultanate colony and is a strategic area in eastern part of Java, so the economic level in this region is very high, including Pasuruan.[9] At the end of the 17th century, there were ethnic group villages in the coastal areas around Pasuruan, for example Madurese, Chinese, Arabs, Malays, Bugis, and Europeans around the city, which at that time Pasuruan was a socially diverse port city.[10] Since the Dutch colonial era, Pasuruan has been a trading and industrial area that can attract visitors. This is what causes Greater Pasuruan to also be called a heterogeneous. The two majority ethnic groups that inhabit the northern part of the Greater Pasuruan region are Javanese and Madurese.[11] However, it is also known that Madurese people have long immigrated to the north coast of Java, including Pasuruan, even since the Singasari era during the time of Aria Wiraraja in Sumenep in the 13th century.[12]
Map of language distribution in Java and Madura in 1881 by K.F. Holle, in the Pasuruan Residency (eastern part of Java) the linguistic areas are diverse in the north, Javanese and Madurese both dominate.
In 1806, there were Madurese villages in the eastern corner of Java, including 25 villages in Pasuruan. The arrival of waves of Madurese migration is known to have changed the demographic composition at the eastern part of Java, for example, until the mid-19th century, about half of Pasuruan's population was Madurese (although there is no official data, it seems that proportion is still relatively high present).[3] Then in 1830, the north coast of Pasuruan developed into one of the largest sugar producing areas in Java, mostly workers from Bangkalan and Sampang.[13] The forced cultivation system implemented by the Dutch had a high demand for labor in the lowlands, so that many people migrated to the highlands where the demand for colonial labor was lower. However, because the native Javanese population was outnumbered by migration, the dominance of the region was replaced by the Madurese. Sakera[id], a martial arts expert who fought against colonial rule on a sugarcane plantation in Bangil, is known to be Madurese. He is known for fighting for the rights of workers, most of whom are Madurese who dominate the region.[14]
The migration of Madurese people to the area known as the eastern salient of Java, caused a blending of cultures in the new place, between Javanese and Madurese, but it is very different from the existing Javanese and Madurese culture.[15] This shows that even though they occupy a new area, they cannot be separated from their original identity, so that the new culture that is formed is still thick with the respective cultures of origin. Wibisono & Haryono (2016) stated that the everyday language of the Pendalungan people (incl. Pasuruan) is actually more Madurese mixed with Javanese. If we look at the phonological characteristics that stand out, it is the accent, in everyday conversation for example, the Pandalungan people still uses a Madurese accent when speaking both Indonesian and Javanese.[16]
Usage
The use of Madurese language in everyday life here also occurs due to several social and historical aspects which contribute to the widespread use of Madurese language, although not located on the island of Madura, the migration of Madurese people to the eastern salient of Java, including Greater Pasuruan (city and regency), has been going on for a long time.[17]Madurese people who came to migrate brought their language and culture with them, because of the large number of Madurese migrant population and the wide reach of social groups between the Madurese people and the local population, so Madurese language has become the main medium of communication in several areas in Pasuruan and its surroundings.[18] Even Pasuruan Madurese speakers can be found in Tosari, a district in Pasuruan near the slopes of Mount Bromo.[9]
Ethnic intermarriage and strong intercultural exchange have also contributed to the dominance of the Madurese language in parts of Pasuruan.[19] It is known to have happened even since the time of Sakera, the legendary hero of Pasuruan. Although not widely known, he is very familiar among the people of Pasuruan. Apart from that, it is also known as a symbol of diversity that unites Javanese and Madurese peoples. This has led to the opening up of a society with cultural differences in Pasuruan, which is largely dominated by Madurese and Javanese peoples, this has led to the emergence of the Pendalungan culture as a characteristic of the Pendalungan people, specifically Pasuruan.[20] Madurese language is also known to influence Javanese speakers through the use of high tones, strong dynamic stress, and fast speaking tempo, which is one of the characteristics of Pasuruan speech.[21] This is an example of cultural internalization, which means instilling and developing a value to become part of the person concerned, just as Madurese and Javanese peoples influence each other here.[22]
Pasuruan Madurese language is widely used in daily life by its speakers, including in communication between residents, economic activities, and social interactions where Madurese people is dominant. The use of this language also reflects a strong cultural identity in the Madurese people. Madurese is used as the main language in various traditional activities and religious rituals, such as wedding ceremonies, births, and deaths. Madurese people in Pasuruan tend to use Indonesian language when communicating with outsiders who are not from their ethnic group, but still with a distinctive Madurese accent. However, when speaking with fellow Madurese people, they feel more comfortable using Madurese language.[18] It is also known that in kinship and general communication, Javanese language is more dominant in the city of Pasuruan, but Madurese language also continues to influence the vocabulary.[23] For example, in Ngemplakrejo sub-district (kelurahan), 67% admitted that their first language was Javanese, compared to Madurese which was spoken by 33% of the population.[24]
Distribution
In Greater Pasuruan, the East Javanese (Arekan) dialect is used in almost the entire region, except in Tosari district (Tengger speakers) and eastern part of Pasuruan (Madurese speakers). Apart from that, in Pasuruan, from Bangil to Grati, Madurese is also used, forming a bilingual area with Javanese. The dominant use of Madurese language is limited to several villages in the eastern part of Pasuruan, especially those near the border with Probolinggo,[25] such as Wates in Lekok district and Kalipang in Grati district, therefore only used by Madurese speakers with fellow Madurese speakers.[2] Another area where the Pasuruan Madurese spoken is the Winongan district, where it is used predominantly in all aspects of life,[26] for example in Jeladri village.[27] Madurese speakers are generally proficient in Javanese, but not vice versa. Similarly, Javanese speakers are monolingual.[2] Apart in Greater Pasuruan area, the Pasuruan Madurese is also used in Ngoro district in Mojokerto, which borders Pasuruan to the east. The area is known to be one of the largest industrial areas in Mojokerto, this also attracts ethnic Madurese migrants, especially those from Pasuruan, to migrate there.[1] For example, the Madurese people in Kunjorowesi village who live on the slopes of Mount Penanggungan, are known to have migrated 500 years ago (around the 1500s).[28]
In the eastern part of Pasuruan, Pasuruan Madurese speakers also live side by side with Javanese speakers, in this case the East Javanese (Arekan) dialect. For example, in Ranuklindungan, a village in Grati district, even though it is close to Madurese-speaking villages, the dominant language here is Javanese.[29] Around Ranu Grati, a lake surrounded by three districts in eastern part of Pasuruan, namely Grati, Lekok, and Nguling, the population is heterogeneous, divided between Javanese and Madurese speakers.[30] Another district known to have quite a lot of Pasuruan Madurese speakers is Lumbang district. It's known that the area has favorable geographic conditions for plantations and growing spices, which encouraged Madurese people to migrate there.[31] There is also migration to the western part of Pasuruan, especially to the highland areas near districts of Prigen and Pandaan.[32] In contrast to the eastern part of Pasuruan where the Madurese people is quite dominant, in the western part of Pasuruan, Madurese-speaking people are only a minority, inhabiting villages scattered among the Javanese majority, for example in Jatiarjo, a village in Prigen district, there are Madurese with a significant number of Javanese.[33] Meanwhile in the city of Pasuruan, the geographical boundaries between the use of Javanese and Madurese are not very visible. The people blend together to form the Pendalungan people (a mix of Madurese and Javanese), whose language and culture are a mix of both.[34]
Characteristic
An example of lexical variation found in Pasuruan, almost the same as in Lumajang Madurese, for example, in the gloss 'to give birth' in Madurese speakers there is the word alaɛr. Although Madurese speakers in the transition area (the boundary of use of West Madurese and East Madurese) have the word arɛmbiʔ 'to give birth', but the word that is more often used is alaɛr because this form is considered higher (polite) than the word arɛmbiʔ.[35] Pasuruan Madurese is considered a dialect of West Madurese, such as the Bangkalan dialect. The speakers of this dialect, especially in the previously mentioned Wates village, are all Madurese speakers and most of them can only speak Madurese. This can be proven by the existence of etymology which is a typical form of the West Madurese dialect, such as kakɛh 'you', ɛbʰik 'itik', taʔ 'no', and others. In addition, two-syllable forms and the omission of ⟨h⟩ in the final position are also found in this area, such as sklaŋkɔŋ 'thank you', trɛtan 'brother', pɔtɛ 'white', klambʰi 'clothes'. In contrast to previous conditions, the villages in Lekok district (apart from Wates) are actually villages with heterogeneous populations, namely there are Javanese and Madurese speakers there.[36]
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