The Ohio Department of Natural Resources stated the Great Black Swamp covered 3,072,000 acres (1,243,194 ha) and Lake Erie's marshes covered 300,000 acres (121,400 ha).[6] Other estimates claim the swamp’s wetlands covered 1,500 square miles (4,000km2); or 2,600 square miles (6,700km2).[7][8][9]
A Lidar-based DEM of the Laurentide ice sheet's footprints in which the Great Black Swamp developed. The image shows how the ice shaped the terrain with moraines and flat elevations of glacial till across Indiana, Ohio, and Michigan.
After the Maumee mega-flood around 14,000 years BP, the region developed the following proglacial lakes as water levels dropped: Arkona (13,800–13,600 BP); Ypsilanti (13,600–13,000 BP); Whittlesey (13,000–12,800 BP); Warren and Wayne (12,800–12,500 BP); Grassmere and Lundy (12,500–12,400 BP); Early and Middle Lake Erie (12,400–4,000 BP); and Modern Lake Erie (4,000 BP to the present).[17]Isosatic rebound (an uplift of the Earth's crust from the ice sheet's removal) occurred 9,000 to 4,000 BP, which impacted water flow. Drainage initially flowed west during the highest lake stages (up to 220 feet/67 M above current levels), then shifted east, and eventually established Lake Erie's present outline.[18]
One study determined the preceding glacial lake had a chain of islands, not a traditional beach. It examined lake level changes based on evidence, including lacustrine sands with diamicton, from the Bølling-Allerød Interstadial (14,690–12,890 BP).[19] This period is associated with meltwater pulse 1A, when global sea-levels rose 16–25 meters (52–82 feet).
The Great Black Swamp formed on the drained Huron-Erie Lake Plain, including the Maumee Lake Plains, Paulding Plains, Marblehead Drift/Limestone Plains, and the Oak Openings.[20] This area rests on shale and Silurian, Devonian, and Mississippian bedrock, which correlate with bedrock and glacial aquifers.[21]Limestone, with 20–80 feet (6–24 meters) of clay-rich till deposited 15,000–13,000 BP, covers the Maumee River's south side, while 90 feet (27 meters) of glacial drift covers shale to the north.[22]
An illustration showing how a melting glacier shapes a moraine, a lacustrine plain, a proglacial lake, and other landforms. This is how the Huron-Erie Lake Plain and Lake Maumee were formed, followed later by the Great Black Swamp.An illustration showing how terrain impacts wetlands. A glacier shaped the Great Black Swamp's terrain, which developed a variety of wetlands, forests, prairies, and savannas.
End moraines are huge, curved ridges of till outline where the outer margin of the glacier once stood. They can hold proglacial lakes and create braided streams and outwash fans. They sometimes exhibit a hummocky land surface across the till plains characterized by rounded knolls and depressions, which are called "knob and kettle topography".[26]
One 19th-century historian described the streams as "sluggish in their motions, their bed having little inclination".[27] Another 19th-century historian noted the ground's level surface was, "alike retaining, and alike absorbing water".[28] The average slope of the land was about 4 feet (1.2 M) per mile.[29][30] Water saturated the land flattened for tens of thousands of years under the weight of the ice sheet.[31]
A photo of a replica of Fred the mastodon (Buesching mastodon), pictured left, based on fossils found west of the former Great Black Swamp. Pictured right is a female mastodon fossil.
In 1998, an 80% complete male mastodon fossil skeleton was discovered in Fort Wayne, Indiana, just west of the former Great Black Swamp, and was named "Fred" by the family who found it buried beneath their peat farm.[35] About 13,000 BP, its body sank into wetland soils, where a low-oxygen environment helped preserve it. Scientists determined it had died from a fatal battle with another male, and its location of death was likely used by other mastodons for mating grounds.[36] Scientists studied the bones for oxygen and strontium levels to determine how the animal used the landscape.[37] They concluded from chemical signatures in the tusks that the mastodon's diet consisted of conifers such as spruce, which were abundant in the swamp region during the Late Pleistocene.[38]
The 8.2 kiloyear event, a rapid drop in global cooling temperatures, induced two phases of wind-blown loess deposition across the swamp and Ohio 8,950 to 8,005 calibrated years BP.[51]
A 1905 illustration by Jesse Cornplanter when he was 15. The artwork depicts the daily life in a Seneca village centuries ago. The Seneca lived in the Great Black Swamp region, until they and other Indigenous nations were forced to sell the entire swamp lands to the U.S. government in the Treaty of Fort Meigs in 1817 (Cessions 87 and 88).
Evidence in northern Ohio of the first Indigenous peoples, known as Paleo-Indians, date to around 11,000 years Before Present (BP), according to studies of the Paleo Crossing Site and Nobles Pond Site. Evidence from 11,000–12,000 BP of early humans was found at Sheriden Cave, east of the former Great Black Swamp, and included Clovis culture artifacts.[54] A 2012 study suggests humans existed in northern Ohio 13,738 to 13,435 calibrated years BP, based on the discovery of stone-tool cut marks on the bones of a Jefferson's ground sloth, which were found in a bog in the Huron River headwaters, east of the former swamp.[55]
An illustration of Indigenous people harvesting wild rice during the 19th century. These plants existed in the marshes of the Great Black Swamp. Seth Eastman illustrated this circa 1850, based on his observations and interactions with Indigenous people.A photo of a cedarbark bag for collecting rice made by the Ojibwe (Chippewa), who shared the swamp region with other Native nations.
Indigenous people managed their lands around the swamp during the wet and dry seasons. Villages would migrate with seasonal changes and when new food sources were needed.[61] Villages depended on hunting and fishing, would grow corn, and cultivate and manage their lands by burning the soil.[62] This is similar to the prescribed burns used today by wildlife and natural resource departments in nature refuges and management areas across the country.
Indigenous people harvested wild rice (Zizania palustris), a species that indicates healthy, biodiverse freshwater marshes.[63] Wild rice is sensitive to environmental changes, making it a key indicator of water quality and ecosystem health.[64] It provides habitat and a protein, mineral, and fiber-rich diet for wildlife like deer, rabbits, muskrats, and ducks.[65]
Studies of animal remains in Indigenous refuse pits (middens) reveal they hunted game in the Sandusky Bay section of the swamp, including muskrats, ducks, frogs, turtles, and fish such as freshwater drum, longnose gar, yellow bullhead, and bluegill.[66] Harpoons made of bone were used to spear fish.[67] They also used wetland plants like cattail and bulrush, as well as inner tree bark, for making baskets, mats, utensils, and other textiles.
A different Maumee River archaeological site (Lucas County, Ohio) yielded evidence of a late 18th to early 19th century Ottawa burial, which contained: trade goods; a shelter; an animal enclosure; indigenous and European artifacts such as trade silver; and dietary evidence such as corn, fish, reptiles, and mollusks.[69]
Canoes in a Fog, Lake Superior by Frances Anne Hopkins, 1869. Hopkins based it on her work trips with her husband and with Indigenous people for the Hudson's Bay Company. It shows the Indigenous peoples' advanced engineering skills in birchbark canoe build and design.
Indigenous peoples used horses, after horse reintroduction in North America, and 15 feet (4.6m) long dugout canoes to travel.[70][71] They also built large, sophisticated birchbark canoes that could transport many people and heavy goods. Construction was a process of precise planning, resulting in highly resilient vessels. One 1750s account by frontiersman James Smith described a canoe that was 35 feet (10.7 M) long, 4 feet (1.2 M) wide, and 3 feet (0.9 M) deep.[72]Fur trader records referred to such large vessels as a "6-fathom gunwale length."[73]
Birchbark canoes were built with birch bark over a light wooden frame, often made of white birch, elm, hickory, chestnut, basswood, and cottonwood from the swamp. The frame gave the canoe longitudinal strength to achieve high speeds, even when fully loaded. Birch bark could be easily sewn together with tree roots. Stone axes (made of flint, jasper, and quartz) were used to fell trees. Stone tools were used for woodworking until European metal tools were introduced. Different models were used for specific bodies of water, from calm lakes to fast-moving rivers.[74]
Artwork by George Catlin, c. 1850, based on his time with Indigenous people. It depicts a Kickapoo (center) with Potawatomi, reading prayers from maple sticks. Both nations shared the Great Black Swamp.Illustration by George Catlin, c. 1800s, depicting Ojibwe (Chippewa) he spent time with in the Midwest.
According to Smithsonian historians Edwin Adney and Howard Chapelle, the birchbark canoes' advanced design and engineering showed "a long period of development must have taken place" before European contact.[75]
The Anishinaabe and Ojibwe (Chippewa) utilized birch bark to create scrolls (wiigwaasabak) for written stories, songs, rituals, healing recipes, maps, and artwork. A stylus of bone or wood was used to etch markings, which were then rubbed with charcoal.[76] Birch bark was also crafted into boxes (wiigwaasi-makak) to store items, including food, thanks to the wood's preservative compound, betulin. The wood's suberin offered waterproof protection for items and food, and even canoes.[77] The Indigenous peoples harvested the bark without fatally injuring the trees.[78] They respected the life-giving abilities of the swamp, which was called Waabashkiki in the Ojibwe language.[79]
Anishinaabe peoples inhabited the swamp region for generations.[80] Villages bordered the area, including those of the Miami along the Maumee-Wabash portage, and the Great Miami and Little Miami Rivers.[81][82] The swamp was a regionally divided trapping ground for many Ohio River valley settlements.[83][84][85] They included the Shawnee settlement of Lower Shawneetown.[86][83]
The Wyandot (Wendat, Huron) established villages at the mouths of the Maumee and Sandusky Rivers within the swamp, and along the Scioto and Ohio Rivers.[87][83] After past wars with the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois), the Wyandot lived peacefully with the Delaware and Shawnee. They shared the swamp's lake coastline with the Ottawa and Ojibwe.[88][89][90]
Archaeologists have studied ancient earthworks within the swamp region. One expert suggested Indigenous peoples modified the land for defense against warring nations.[91] Many of the swamp's earthworks were in Fulton, Lucas, and Sandusky counties.[92]
Indigenous nations, including the Potawatomi, Wea, and Miami, traveled the swamp's rivers for hunting, trade, and defense. They established villages at the swamp's headwaters — the confluence of the St. Joseph, St. Marys, and Maumee rivers in Indiana — to access the Great Lakes and northern territories.[93] This network included the Miami town of Kekionga and the Shawnee town of Chillicothe. Major Ebenezer Denny witnessed villages with riverside gardens and corn fields when the U.S. military destroyed them during the Harmar campaign of the Northwest Indian War.[94]
Indigenous assimilation, removals, and treaties for the swamp
Charge of the Dragoons at Fallen Timbers by R.F. Zogbaum, 1895. The illustration depicts the Battle of Fallen Timbers, which took place on the Maumee River in the Great Black Swamp in 1794, and was the final battle of the Northwest Indian War.
The establishment of the Northwest Territory in 1787 by the U.S. Congress initiated major changes for northwest Ohio's Indigenous peoples and the Great Black Swamp. Following the 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers and the end of the Northwest Indian War, the 1795 Treaty of Greenville reserved the entire region, including the swamp, for Indigenous control.[102][103] However, the U.S. government systematically took these lands, including the Great Black Swamp, for sale to white settlers through a series of subsequent treaties (1807–1833).
The Great Black Swamp's name originated during the War of 1812, possibly referencing its black soil, the way its trees blocked sunlight, or the terrain's challenges for military transport.[112][113] On September 29, 1812, the first Ohio battle of the war took place in the swamp between Americans and Indigenous, ending in a draw on the Marblehead Peninsula in Sandusky Bay.[114][115]Shawnee leaders Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa formed an indigenous alliance to resist American expansion.[116] After their defeat at the Battle of Tippecanoe (1811), this confederacy united with the British during the War of 1812 but disbanded following Tecumseh's death at the Battle of the Thames (1813).
After the Treaty of Greenville (1814) came the Treaty of Fort Meigs in 1817, when the entire Great Black Swamp, from Fort Wayne to Lake Erie, was ceded by the Indigenous peoples to the U.S. government.[117][118][119] In 1818, Lewis Cass, Territorial Governor of Michigan, stated an interest to develop northwest Ohio for European-American use, and to take it by force, even if it caused, he said, the "extinction" of the Indigenous peoples living there.[120]
A late-19th century photo of the Maumee Mission School, where Rev. Isaac Van Tassel, his wife, Lucia, and teachers taught Indigenous children (1822–1834) by the Maumee River.Kay be sen day way We Win, or Indian Woman with Child on Lap, by Eastman Johnson, 1857. The illustration depicts a child and mother, possibly Ojibwe (Chippewa). Johnson based it on his observations and interactions with Indigenous people.
From 1822 to 1834, the Ebenezer Mission School (or Old Maumee Mission School) operated on the Maumee River in the Great Black Swamp in Wood County.[128] Established by the Western Presbyterian Missionary Society of Pennsylvania, which owned Missionary Island and 372 adjacent acres, it focused on "Christianizing and civilizing the Indians."[129] Rev. Isaac Van Tassel and his wife, Lucia, ran the complex, which included a two-story Mission House, a schoolhouse, a blacksmith shop, a stable, and agricultural land with livestock, and was managed with assistants, teachers, and laborers.[130][131] The school typically hosted 80 to 150 Indigenous boys and girls, aged 6 to 20. Beyond formal instruction, activities included sports, sledding, making maple sugar, and harvesting thousands of bushels of hickory nuts for sale in eastern markets.[132]
Students included Ottawa, Chippewa, Miami, Shawnee, Munsee, Wyandotte, and Potawatomi. Rev. Van Tassel and the teachers taught children at school, and taught their parents and elders when they visited them in their lands.[133] They also preached in nearby white settlements.[134] School children learned the Bible, arithmetic, grammar, and geography.[135] Van Tassel and his wife learned Indigenous languages to translate religious lectures and hymns. They gave Indigenous children spelling books, with scriptures and hymns, translated in languages such as Ottawa.[136] The Ottawa children had always called the Western Basin of Lake Erie home, known in their own language as "Gitche Gumegsuwach" (Get-she-gum-eg-sug-wach).[137]
The school had been developing a growing community.[138] However, the Indian Removal Act started to induce Indigenous peoples to sell their lands to the U.S. government and move them out by force. Horrified by the Removals, Van Tassel had the Presbyterian Missionary Society donate 600 to 700 acres of his school's land to the Ottawa people so they could stay.[139] This was not to last. The school closed in April 1834 because the U.S. government forced Indigenous populations to move west of the Mississippi.[140] The school is not listed as a boarding school by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.[141][142]
Additional treaties during the Removals were the Treaty with the Ottawa (1831), which relinquished the lands around what is now the town of Ottawa, Ohio.[143][144] Another treaty with the Wyandot (1832) relinquished the lands north of what is now Carey, Ohio, and which now include the Springville Marsh State Nature Preserve.[145][146] A final treaty with the Ottawa (1833) relinquished the lands on the shore of the Maumee River opposite the future city of Toledo.[147][148]
In 1841, by the Portage River in the Great Black Swamp, a group of white people murdered a Wyandot, Chief Summundewat, who was one of the most vocal leaders opposed to the Indian Removals.[149][150][151][152] On March 17, 1842, the Wyandot Tribal Council signed a treaty with Special Commissioner John Johnston and sold all of their remaining lands in Michigan and 109,144 acres in the Ohio counties of Wyandot and Crawford.[153] In 1842, Charles Dickens, who was traveling through the U.S. at that time, met with the last of the Wyandot people in Ohio, and with Johnston himself, who had just negotiated the treaty. Dickens wrote about this encounter in his book, American Notes.
An illustration (1857–1859) by artist and surveyor John Arnot Fleming, based on his observations of Indigenous graves. The Wyandot (Wendat, Huron) buried their dead through various rituals in graves called Oi-go-sa-yé.
Dickens listened to Johnston, who spoke to him about the Wyandot, and gave him "a moving account of their strong attachment to the familiar scenes of their infancy, and in particular to the burial-places of their kindred; and of their great reluctance to leave them".[155] Burial grounds in the Wyandot (Wendat, Huron) language were called Oi-go-sa-yé.[154]
During the Removals, Americans authorized to work with the Indigenous as agents assured them that the President said they would always own the land they would be moved to out west, in Indian Territory. Records indicate an agent was told by a Wyandot chief:
He promised the same thing to us at our last treaty; that if we would sell all but this reservation, he would protect us from the encroachments of the whites, and keep us in peace, and never ask us to sell another foot of our land. This was not ten years ago; and now you are at your old trade of trying to drive us away again. Besides, it would be no better if we were yonder; for there is no land or swamp so poor, but white men will want it; and if the President did not fulfill his word here, will he do it yonder? No! You white men never will be satisfied till the blue water of the great lakes, in which the sun sets, has drank the last drop of Indian blood. Here are our homes; and we are now beginning to live comfortably… Here, too, are the graves and bones of our fathers, our wives, and our children.[156]
Draining the swamp
First stages of settlement and development
A geographic rendition of the Great Black Swamp's extent from Allen County, Indiana to Ottawa County, Ohio. This rendition follows historian Martin Kaatz's 1953 interpretation of the swamp's borders.
Following the forced removals of the Indigenous populations, white American settlement accompanied the Great Black Swamp's drainage.[157] Dry uplands were settled early, but the swamp's muddy terrain delayed development for decades.[158][159]
The swamp's impassibility factored into conflicts.[160][161][162][163] The Black Swamp Mutiny of 1813 occurred when American soldiers got lost in the swamp en route to the Battle of the Thames.[164] During the 1835–36 Toledo War, militias could not engage in the wetlands.[165][166]
Even with a corduroy road, travel could take weeks; wheeled transport was often impossible most of the year.[167][168][169][170] People could walk across the swamp with ease when it was frozen hard in winter.[171]
The General Land Office (GLO), established in 1812, managed the Public Land Survey System's surveying and platting, established by the Land Ordinance of 1785. To sell the Ohio Lands, the GLO required surveyors to record detailed landscape observations. GLO surveys from 1816 to 1856 documented the location of wetlands and streams, assessed the agricultural potential of soils, noted the quantity and quality of timber (including tree species and diameter), and recorded features like burned areas, beaver floodings, and Native American or early-settler cultural sites.[172]
An illustration of the Great Black Swamp's environments, based on GIS presettlement vegetation maps of Indiana, Ohio, and Michigan. The GIS maps are created from 19th-century land surveys, which recorded in detail the vegetation in wetlands, forests, prairies, and savannas.
Survey records were vulnerable to losses or fires in the 19th century.[173] Surviving survey records, once used to sell land to 19th-century settlers, now help researchers identify environments that existed over 200 years ago.[174][175]
GIS presettlement vegetation maps, based on survey records, show the Great Black Swamp's full extent across Indiana, Ohio, and Michigan.[2][3][1] They follow the work of Dr. Paul Sears, Dr. Edgar Nelson Transeau, and Dr. Robert B. Gordon, who created the first presettlement vegetation map in 1966.[176][177][178] In 2025, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources (Ohio DNR) began building an Ohio presettlement vegetation map more detailed than previous versions.[179]
GIS presettlement vegetation maps show the Great Black Swamp was not uniform, but a composition of varied wetland fragments shaped by elevation and terrain. The outline was defined by three large continuous wetland fragments:
Using GIS, the estimated meanproximity distance between each of the three large wetland fragments was 1.5 miles (2.4km).[180] Due to variances in cartographic methodology and the inclusion criteria for dry uplands, the estimated swamp size can range from 1.5 million acres (610,000 ha) up to the Ohio DNR's estimation of over 3.3 million acres (1.3 million ha).[6] Outliers potentially missed by early-19th century surveyors measuring wetlands was how seasonal precipitation expanded the swamp's borders, turning dry forests into flooded forests, dry prairies into wet prairies, and other dry areas into vernal pools.[181][182]
In 1838, drought devastated the swamp, from the River Raisin to the Huron, with the Maumee watershed drying up, all its streambeds dusty. One historian described how wildlife — from deer to frogs — migrated across towns searching for water, how wetlands within the swamp dried up, "their bottoms cracked open from shrinking", and how every tree within it died.[183]
Historians have arbitrarily suggested the Great Black Swamp's boundaries were only south of the Maumee River and also in Allen County, Indiana, and Defiance County, Ohio, denying the swamp's true extent in Lucas, Fulton, Henry, Lenawee, and Monroe counties.[196][197] Historian Bruce E. McGarvey acknowledged the swamp's true extent north of the Maumee, correcting misinformation from previous historians.[198] Geological and survey data conclusively show the swamp extended into Michigan.[2][3]
Presettlement vegetation maps confirm the swamp extended slightly into Williams and Erie counties. This establishes a total coverage of eighteen Great Black Swamp counties (15 in Ohio, 2 in Michigan, 1 in Indiana), validating a 19th-century observation.[199][200]
Presettlement vegetation and DEM maps show how landforms separated certain wetlands from the swamp.[2][15] They raise uncertainties about historic claims of the swamp's extent into Mercer, Auglaize, and Wyandot counties.[201][202][203][204]
Border Settlers in Ohio by F.O.C. Darley, 1876. The print shows how settlers had to be inventive and resilient to survive. They felled trees and drained wetlands to farm.
GIS presettlement vegetation maps can verify claims about the swamp, such as one about Charles Dickens' 1842 Columbus to Upper Sandusky stagecoach trip as having been inside the swamp.[205][206] GIS maps disprove this idea.[2] That trip included a corduroy road that produced, Dickens wrote, "the very slightest of jolts" that could "have dislocated all the bones in the human body."[207] Dickens left Upper Sandusky by stagecoach for Tiffin, where only then did he travel through the actual swamp by train to visit Sandusky.[208]
The Land Act of 1820 brought the minimum price of land in the U.S. down from $2.00 per acre to $1.25 per acre.[215] This price drop stimulated interest in developing wetlands, allowing settlers to move into the Congress Lands and live in survey townships.
Individual settlers and families bought land under the Preemption Act of 1841 and Homestead Acts. Vagueness in the laws enabled rich investors and land speculators to buy large tracts of land sight unseen, and engage in fraud.[216]
An image from Land Draining; a Handbook for Farmers on the Principles and Practice of Farm Draining by Manly Miles, 1892. It shows tiles laid 3 to 4 feet deep, visible beneath the person's foot, which lowered the water table and drained excess water into man-made ditches, allowing farmers to grow crops.
The Swamp Land Act of 1850 advanced the drainage of wetlands across the United States, including the Great Black Swamp. In 1859, the Ohio General Assembly passed the "Ohio Ditch Law", enabling settlers to build ditches, drain wetlands, and farm the soils.[217][218] By spade and shovel, settlers hand-dug deep ditches, which lowered the water table, then buried clay tiles (pipes made from local clay), which drained excess water into ditches.[219] Historian Henry Howe described the soils as a foot of "black decaying matter" over several feet of "rich yellow clay", followed by a "stratum of black clay of great depth."[220]
Settlers built their homes on river banks and sand ridges.[221] They often made their homes out of logs, and hunted game in the swamp for food, and for skins and furs to make clothing and other items.[222] They also caught large quantities of fish in the Sandusky and Maumee Rivers.[223] In open wet prairies without trees, water could be 4 feet (1.2 M) deep, going up to a horse's saddle skirt.[224] In other places, the land was under 2 feet (0.6 M) of water because the creeks were flooded by beaver dams, which took years for settlers to remove.[225]
Settlers saw the swamp as "primeval forest".[226] Historian Martin Kaatz wrote about early-19th century accounts of how 100 foot (30 M) trees "nearly shut out the sun's rays except during the period of high sun".[227] Howe described the swamp's dense foliage was "almost impenetrable to the rays of the sun".[220]
"Confused speculation": Public health crises in the swamp
Diseases and epidemics were common during the draining of the swamp. Their symptoms were recorded in medical journals and notes, but their causes were not known, and their high mortality rate possessed the first settlers in the swamp with fear and panic.[228] An Ohio public health official in the 1940s commented on the general ignorance in Ohio about diseases and epidemics between 1788 and 1873, describing it as "confused speculation".[229]
Settlers often blamed the swamp itself for every death, infection, and injury, leading many to call the City of Toledo and the Great Black Swamp, "The Graveyard of the Midwest".[230] One incident in particular involved the town of Gilboa in 1852, located next to the swamp. A cholera outbreak caused nearly 600 people to flee the town in fear and terror, and 13 people were reported killed by the disease.[231] It was later determined that a damp cellar that stored trash and decomposing vegetable matter was the source of the outbreak.[232]
Dr. Daniel Drake was one of Ohio's prominent physicians who encouraged education as the first line of defense against epidemics by working with local governments in Ohio, and by publishing books and pamphlets on infectious diseases with the best information available at the time.[229] In 1850, Drake published a book connecting geography to disease, in which he blamed the Great Black Swamp for what he described as "autumnal fevers" that afflicted and even killed large numbers of people.[233]
However, while wetlands and even migrating waterfowl are contamination vectors for diseases like cholera, caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae, and also Pasteurella multocida, or avian cholera, it is ultimately the lack of human hygiene and sanitation that lead to cholera epidemics.[234][235][236]
The Ghost of the Swamp by Maurice Sand (or Maurice Dudevant), 1850. The illustration is an allegory for malaria. Its mortality and infection rates in the Great Black Swamp are unknown, due to ignorance and unreliable medical information and treatment in the mid-19th century.
Malaria was deadly in the swamp, yet settlers were unaware that mosquitoes, not "bad air", transmitted it until Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran's discovery of plasmodium in 1880. A 2008 study of U.S. malaria covering the years 1850–1860 highlighted widespread public health ignorance at that time, noting how settlers did not know building ditches could create mosquito vectors, that mosquitoes favored rainfalls, and that temperature was the most crucial risk factor for infections.[237]
"Confused speculation" led to common misdiagnosis, leaving the exact number of malaria deaths in the swamp unknown. Even the 1870 U.S. census noted the lack of sufficient death records as the "gross incompleteness of the Returns of Deaths". The census mapped a high proportion of malaria deaths in northwest Ohio.[238]
Indigenous populations in the swamp region suffered significant losses from the 17th to 19th centuries not from the swamp they had lived with for over 13,000 years, but from disease endemics newly introduced by European and American settlers.[239][240][241] Diseases like smallpox decimated Indigenous communities, killing an estimated 90% of all Indigenous peoples across the Western Hemisphere.[242] Populations declined only after European contact, a problem compounded by germ warfare used for military and territorial advantage.[243][244]
By the 1860s and 1870s, germ theory became more widely accepted as the cause for diseases, thanks to prominent advocates in the late 19th century. Public health was significantly improved in 1886, when Ohio's government created a State Board of Health to educate the public, to help prevent the spread of infections and diseases, and to end the era of "confused speculation".[245]
The Underground Railroad in the Great Black Swamp
A photo of Reverend William King (1812–1895), minister and abolitionist. He established a settlement in Canada for American runaway slaves. The trail to Canada led them through the Great Black Swamp. An estimated 1,000 people followed this trail to the Elgin settlement in Buxton.An 1863 illustration of a runaway slave hiding in a swamp from slave catchers and their dogs. Wetlands like the Great Black Swamp helped slaves in the Underground Railroad.
The Great Black Swamp offered hope for people escaping slavery from the American South in the form of the Underground Railroad. During slavery, wetlands played critical roles in concealing the movement of slaves escaping southern plantations to the North. The Great Dismal Swamp in North Carolina and Virginia, for example, shielded everyone, including the people who lived there and the people traveling to the next station towards safety in the North.[246][247]Harriet Tubman worked as a slave her whole life in the marshes and swamps of the Eastern Shore of Maryland, which gave her the skills to help navigate the difficult wetland terrain to gain her freedom, and to lead others out of slavery.[248]
In the midwest, the Great Black Swamp was joined in the Underground Railroad by wetlands in Indiana, such as the swamps and marshes of Marion County where mostly Quakers, devoted to the abolitionist movement, led the slaves to freedom.[249]
People who helped the slaves in the Underground Railroad were called agents and operators. They took massive risks by violating the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which demanded the return of slaves to their owners.
Despite not having slavery, Ohio was settled by white southerners who passed the Black Laws of 1804 and 1807. These laws codified white supremacy, imposing cruel restrictions, and making black residents vulnerable to kidnapping and trafficking to the South.[250][251] This elevated the swamp's importance on the Underground Railroad, where its difficult terrain could conceal slaves escaping to Canada.
In 1998, U.S. Congress passed legislation to create a National Park Service program called the Network to Freedom, in order to honor, preserve, and promote the people who helped free the slaves.[252] It officially recognizes three Underground Railroad sites within the Great Black Swamp.[253]
One site is the Howard Family Farm on Beaver Creek (Grand Rapids, Wood County), which existed within mixed oak-beech forests, and elm-ash swamps.[2] The John King Farm is the second site, which served the Railroad from 1838 until the American Civil War's end. It was located at Route 109 (Delta, Fulton County), and existed within oak savannas and swamps.[2]
The third site is the King Cemetery in Delta, which existed within swamps and forests of oak, ash, hickory, maple, basswood, elm, and black walnut.[254][2] The Cemetery memorializes the abolitionistReverend William King, founder of the Elgin Settlement (North Buxton) where many people escaping slavery sought freedom. Rev. King began his mission to free the slaves in 1848.[255] His story was told in Annie Straith Jamieson's 1925 book, William King: Friend and Champion of Slaves.[256]
An 1861 illustration depicting runaway slaves hiding in a marsh. Before slaves reached the Great Black Swamp to escape to Canada, they already had experience using wetlands in the slave states to evade capture.
Rev. King's brother, John King, who lived in Findlay and was known locally as "Uncle John King", was one of many people who initiated escapes and hid slaves in barns, cellars, pens, garrets, cornfields, sacks, and other hiding places within the swamp's counties of Wood and Hancock. Historians estimate 1,543 to over 2,000 Underground Railroad agents and operators in Ohio helped between 40,000 and 50,000 fugitive slaves escape to ports near Cleveland, and escape through the Great Black Swamp to ports near Toledo and Sandusky to cross Lake Erie and find freedom in Canada.[257]
Runaway slaves used every effort to baffle their slave catchers trying to recapture them for their owners in the slave states. Slaves could hide in the Great Black Swamp's terrain, which was known to locals and even the military as "impassable", with its "knee-deep" muck and thick growth of trees.[258][259][260] Indigenous peoples historically used the swamp as shelter from enemies.[261] Slaves could also hide in the swamp knowing the locals avoided it because of its fearful reputation.[262][263] One historian described it as, "the well known and much dreaded Black Swamp, which was a terror to all travelers".[264]
Historians believe more stations existed in the Underground Railroad between the Ohio River and Lake Erie than the official records state because of the massive organization of effort and resources to deliver slaves to freedom.[257] The swamp played an important role in that endeavor.
After the American Civil War, the United States focused on westward expansion, and by the 1860s, more than 30,000 miles of railroad track existed in the nation. The railroads of Ohio consumed 1 million cords of wood annually just for fuel (the amount of wood used for railroad ties is unknown), leading to intense timber cutting and land clearing which eliminated most of Ohio's wetlands, including the Great Black Swamp.[265]
Arriving alone or with their families, settlers felled trees, built their homes and furniture, dug ditches, hunted wild game for food, and farmed crops, poultry, and dairy. Other enterprises expanded the wealth of the settlers, including gristmills and sawmills, logging and lumbering, and then later, in the 1880s, oil and gas fields in Wood and Hancock counties.[266][267][268]
Iron ore imported to Ohio was smelted in Paulding County from the late 1860s to the mid-1880s, with each furnace burning charcoal from about 1,000 acres of local forest each year.[272] More than 50 drainage tile factories operated in northwest Ohio by 1880, in compliance with Ohio's Ditch Law and with the land draining needs of the farmers, factories, and land owners.[273][274][275]
As white settlers from other parts of America arrived in northwest Ohio to turn the swamp into farmland, so too did an influx of immigrants from Europe. Irish immigrants helped to drain the swamp, build churches, and develop the land while also bringing their culture and customs to the area.[276] Germans from the Austrian Empire, Switzerland (post-Napoleonic era), the German Confederation and later the German Empire, and other regions from Central/Eastern Europe, also helped transform the swamp into agriculture.[277][278][279][280]
Immigrants helped build the Miami and Erie Canal (1825–1845) through the swamp, providing a supply route for farming, logging, and commercial goods. Such developments improved the region's economy.[199]
Polish immigrants arrived in the swamp (1870s–1880s), some of whom were fleeing Kulturkampf. Other ethnic groups fleeing economic, religious, and political challenges from Central/Eastern Europe included people from Galicia, in what is now southeastern Poland and Western Ukraine. While some of them worked in Toledo's industries, others farmed in the former swamp, able to own their own land, a right that was taken away from them back in their homeland.[282]
The swamp's rich soils provided a new beginning for African-Americans in farming. This was not made easy by the Ohio Black Laws of 1804 and 1807, which made black people pay a residency fee, register with the county clerk, have a white Ohian as a sponsor, and obtain travel and freedom papers, all under the threat of expulsion.[283] Successful African-Americans included Archibald Worthington, a former slave. In 1855, near his 160-acre farm in Defiance County, he created a cemetery which he platted for and donated to other African-Americans.[284] His cemetery and farm were south of the Maumee near wetlands, prairies, and forests.[2] The cemetery received a historic marker in 2025.[285]
A 2009 study described African-American lives in 19th-century northwest Ohio, including a 750-acre colony of former slaves in Van Wert County; how the family of Godfrey Brown, a runaway slave and Continental Army soldier, brought relatives to Van Wert after buying their release from a Southern plantation in 1830; and generational land owners in Paulding County, like Charles Williams, born 1867, who lived and worked on the farm his grandfather had bought after fleeing slavery.[286] The study claimed racial prejudice was rare where black people lived in Paulding, Van Wert, and other counties in the Great Black Swamp, and that black residents sometimes married white and Indigenous people. A 2024 report claimed race riots in the 1870s pushed out many black families from the region.[287] This contributed to black land loss in the United States.
Industrialists capitalized on the swamp's rich natural resources, including Eber Brock Ward. In 1863, he purchased 4,089 acres of swamp and marshes along Lake Erie in Lucas County and called it "New Jerusalem" (which later became Jerusalem Township). He had a canal dug between Cedar Creek and Lake Erie to transport goods. He brought a steam-powered dredger to help dig the canal, but most of the work was done by hand. Lumbering was profitable until 1895, when a muck fire burned for three months, destroying the rest of the trees near the canal.[288]
Bowling Green resident James B. Hill expedited the draining of swamps with his Buckeye Traction Ditcher.[289] Hill's ditching machine laid drainage tiles at a record pace. First built in 1893, it was the first successful steam-driven tractor ditcher.[290]
Railroads, drainage tile industries, and ditches contributed to the swamp's destruction.[295][296][297][298] One example is the Jackson Cut-Off Ditch; built for $110,000, it drained 30,000 acres (12,140 ha) of wetlands.[299] Completed 1878–1879, it diverted Yellow and Brush Creeks and the Portage River's North Branch into Beaver Creek and the Maumee to drain Wood, Henry, Hancock, and Putnam counties.[300][301]Lidar-based DEM images reveal both channelized streams and original meandering stream channels, divided by a network of roads and deep ditches, including the Jackson Cut-Off.[302]
Farming communities maintain ditches to direct water to the Maumee, and prevent flooding.[303][304]
The 1920 United States census reported that the State of Ohio had a total of 24,984 miles of completed open ditches and 9,205 miles of completed tile drains (both numbers excluding ditches and tile drains that were being planned or under construction).[305] About 15,000 miles of these reported ditches were in the former Great Black Swamp region alone.[306][307]
By 1883, deforestation reduced Ohio’s forests from 24 million acres (9.7 million ha) to 4 million acres (1.6 million ha).[308] By 1890, all the swamp’s trees were logged for fuel and lumber. The last photograph of the swamp shows a vast field of tree stumps and small pools of water in Paulding County.[309]
One 19th-century account lamented the destruction of black walnut by settlers unaware that the trees were financially worth more than the land.[310] Such a lament grieved the loss of money, not ecology.
Historian Martin Kaatz romanticized the way settlers engaged with nature, stating they had to "wage war" with the environment, and "trees had to be felled, underbrush cleared, stumps removed, and predatory animals killed".[311]
In the 19th century, most people favored draining and farming wetlands. Even Charles Dickens in 1842 observed how a wetland near Cincinnati had not been "reclaimed".[314] However, this period also saw a growing worldwide recognition of human and environmental abuses.
In Hard Times, Dickens, who was anti-slavery, opposed how industrialists applied utilitarianism to minimize and exploit workers as "objects" for maximum economic "utility".[315] Like utilitarianism, extractivism also treated people and environments only as commodities for maximum "utility", causing massive environmental destruction and human rights abuses in the Americas, Africa, and other countries during the 19th and early 20th centuries.[316][317][318] In the U.S., Manifest Destiny asserted that uncultivated Indigenous lands were being "wasted" — a powerful fallacy white Americans adopted to justify the seizure, settlement, and farming of those territories.[319] These prevailing mindsets dismissed wetlands as "wastelands", justifying their destruction for maximum economic utility.[320]
By the late 19th century, natural resource management emerged as U.S. deforestation and industrialization opened people's eyes to the damage from land exploitation and overexploiting forests and wildlife.[324] The Ohio Fish Commission (established 1873) and the Ohio Forestry Bureau (established 1885) were among the first government agencies to manage Ohio's natural resources.[325][326] But for the Great Black Swamp, they were too late.
In less than thirty years (1859–1885), the Great Black Swamp, once teeming with countless plants and animals, was erased from the land that had shaped it since the end of the Younger Dryas 11,700 years ago. Currently, about 80% of the former swamp has been planted with crops; only 0.02% remains as freshwater wetlands.[8]
Economic and population growth
The Great Black Swamp's soils power agricultural growth, even after long-term farming exhausted its original soil nutrients and fertilizers became widely used. Since the 19th century, state and federal census records have documented growth in the agricultural economies and populations of Indiana, Ohio, and Michigan. Though a 1921 fire destroyed most of the 1890 U.S. census archives, crucial statistics are preserved at the state level.[327]
In Ohio, the swamp spanned Allen, Defiance, Erie, Fulton, Hancock, Henry, Lucas, Ottawa, Paulding, Putnam, Sandusky, Seneca, Van Wert, Williams, and Wood counties. The 1920 U.S. Census recorded 42,654 farms in the former Ohio swamp region, with a total "Value of All Crops" of $126,317,389 (unadjusted).[328] Crops included corn, wheat, oats, cereals, fruits (ex: apples, peaches, strawberries, raspberries), potatoes, tobacco, sugar beets, forage, and hay. The census detailed labor and supply costs, livestock totals, the value of related products (dairy, wool), farm mortgage debts, and other important figures.
The total population for the fifteen Ohio former swamp counties in 1920 was 740,177. It was 249,029 in 1860, when settlers had spent a year beginning to drain the swamp since the Ohio Ditch Law was passed in 1859.[329]
In 2022, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Ohio census reported the number of farms and revenues from the fifteen Ohio counties in the former swamp. In total, they had 12,478 farms, and generated $2,512,448,000 in crop revenues, excluding animal products. Crops were mostly soybean, corn, and wheat.[330] In 2020, the total population of the fifteen Ohio counties was 1,198,555.[331]
In Indiana, the swamp extended into Allen County. In 1920, the census reported Allen County had 4,221 farms, and their "Value of All Crops", excluding products from animals (ex: livestock, poultry), was $11,054,888 (unadjusted).[332] In 2022, the USDA census reported Allen County had 1,497 farms and $254,903,000 in crops sold, excluding animal products.[333] In 1920, Allen County's total population was 114,303.[334] In 2020, it was 385,410.[335]
In Michigan, the swamp extended into Lenawee and Monroe counties. The 1920 census reported both counties had 9,188 farms, and their "Value of All Crops", excluding animal products, was $21,878,825 (unadjusted).[336] In 2022, the USDA census reported both counties had 2,327 farms and earned $435,654,000 in crops sold, excluding animal products.[337] In 1920, the total population for both counties was 84,882.[338] In 2020, it was 254,232.[339]
In 2022, the counties inside the former Great Black Swamp (15 in Ohio, 2 in Michigan, 1 in Indiana) earned approximately $3.2 billion in crop revenues (excluding animal products) for their states' economies.
Public perception about wetlands and the environment has changed significantly in the 2020s, with increasing scrutiny for bias, stereotypes, and historical denials. A 1982 WBGU-TVPBS documentary perpetuated misinformation about the Great Black Swamp by omitting many facts and eulogizing its destruction as a "heroic conquest."[340] Historian Bruce E. McGarvey criticized the documentary for ignoring accurate history and focusing instead on exaggerated myths about the swamp.[341]
In 2024, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) alerted the public that U.S. wetland destruction has increased by 50% since 2009, and urged wetland conservation, stating, "wetland loss leads to the reduced health, safety and prosperity of all Americans".[342] In 2025, PBS Western Reserve released a documentary about the Great Black Swamp and the importance of wetlands, stating, "the misunderstanding of what wetlands provide to nature poses the threat of continued loss."[343]
Better understood today, wetlands provide critical ecosystem services, including flood and sediment control, water storage during droughts, nutrient filtering, and biodiverse habitats.[344][345][346][347][348] Inland freshwater wetlands hold carbon more effectively than forests, and hold ten times more carbon than coastal wetlands.[349]
Restoring wetlands
A photo of an Ohiowetland, restored in collaboration with a private landowner.An illustration showing how a wetland filters and transforms nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, in the water. Aquatic plants, hydric soils, bacteria, and microbes work together in the denitrification of the water.
Wetland conservation in the United States is supported by a variety of government agencies, communities, farmers, and non-profit groups devoted to protecting existing wetlands and restoring those that are lost or degraded. In the late 20th century, efforts increased to restore wetlands to their presettlement state (e.g., Limberlost Swamp).[350] Following Lake Erie's harmful algal blooms in 2011, interest has grown in restoring portions of the drained Black Swamp.[273]William J. Mitsch called for the restoration of 150 sq mi (400 km2) of the original swamp.[351] This would reduce phosphorus inflow from the Maumee River to Lake Erie by 40%.[8]
The Olentangy River Wetland Research Park is a 52-acre facility dedicated to wetland science, research, and education, and advises local water resource management, conservation, and restoration projects. It features two experimental wetland basins, an oxbow wetland, bottomland hardwood forest, a mesocosm compound, laboratories, a classroom, offices, and meeting spaces.
Founded in 1993, the Black Swamp Conservancy protects 17,600 acres (7,100 ha) of former swamplands throughout northwest Ohio.[352] Their recent restoration project, the Clary Boulee McDonald Preserve, became the Seneca County Park in 2024. This site, located next to Wolf Creek, used to be beech forests and elm-ashswamp forests in the 19th century. The restoration establishes wildlife corridors and visitor trails.[353] The organization consistently collaborates with local farmers to ensure its restoration efforts benefit surrounding communities.[354]
The Oak Openings Region hosts preserves managed by The Nature Conservancy and the Ohio Department of Natural Resources (Ohio DNR). The Nature Conservancy owns the Kitty Todd Nature Preserve (about 1,400 acres in Lucas County), an assemblage of oak savanna and restored wetlands. Early settlers avoided farming this area due to its sandy soil.[355] Historically, the region consisted of unique, varied vegetation, ranging from wet sedge meadow to wet prairie to oak savanna, sustained by wind-blown sand dunes and wetlands that cycled from wet (winter/spring) to dry (summer).[356] The Ohio DNR manages former Black Swamp sites north of the Maumee River like Campbell State Nature Preserve, Irwin Prairie State Nature Preserve, and Goll Woods State Nature Preserve.[357][358][359]
Metroparks Toledo is another regional leader in wetland restoration, most notably through the creation of Howard Marsh Metropark. This restored wetland converted nearly 1,000 acres (400ha) of historical agricultural land into a prosperous wetland that now boasts over half of the bird species found throughout Ohio.[360]Pearson Metropark is another example of both a historic, old growth wet forest, paired with sections of restored wetlands.[361]
In 2024, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) completed a five-year restoration of 12 acres of coastal wetlands at Port Clinton in Ottawa County. According to the land surveys from the early 19th century, the area the USACE restored used to be freshwater fens and marshes, and also elm-ash swamp forests. Upon project completion, the USACE stated, "Wetlands are essential to the health of our Great Lakes".[362]
Fertilizers restore soil nutrients depleted by farming to maintain crop productivity. However, fertilizers and farm runoff also become pollution sources that fuel the growth of harmful algal blooms (HABs).[363][12]
In 2014, HABs shut down Toledo's water supply.[8] The historic destruction of the Great Black Swamp, which once naturally filtered nutrients entering the lake, contributed to HABs and the eutrophication of Lake Erie.[364] Over $10 million were estimated in lost shoreline property value services, and over 500,000 Toledo residents could not drink the city's tap water for three days.[365]
HABs threaten public health. Airborne HAB toxins can cause eye irritation, breathing problems, and trigger asthma attacks.[366] When cyanobacteria release powerful toxins such as microcystin and microcystin-LR, they can harm the human liver, worsen pre-existing colitis, exacerbate lung inflammation in asthma, and amplify the non-alcoholic fatty liver disease which is common in people living with diabetes.[367]
HABs hurt Ohio's economy. A 2017 study determined Ohio lakeshore homes can lose 22% of their value when located near algal-infested waters.[368] A 2018 study determined algal blooms in the Western Basin of Lake Erie could cost Ohio beach and fishing recreation $59.2 million and $5.3 million each year.[369] The International Joint Commission estimated Ohio lost $71 million in economic benefits from a 2011 HAB event, and lost $65 million from the 2014 event.[370]
In July 2025, Gov. DeWine signed a budget bill approving House and Senate proposals for over $120 million in cuts to H2Ohio – a 45% reduction – that could potentially reverse progress in improving water quality.[374][375]
An Ohio EPA map showing Total Phosphorus (TP) loads from Lake Erie watersheds (2009–2019). It measures the total phosphorus by Metric Tons Annually (MTA).
In 2022, the Ohio EPA published a report using years of water quality data to identify cost-effective strategies for pollution control. It stated the Maumee watershed contributes the most phosphorus pollution to Lake Erie.[376] Row crop production of corn, soy, and wheat uses fertilizers with phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in the farm soil from both commercial sources (such as chemically refined minerals such as superphosphate, monoammonium phosphate, and diammonium phosphate) and organic sources (such as manure, composts, and biosolids).[377] The report recognized pollution from cattle and hog units, concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), legacy phosphorus, and non-agricultural stormwater.
Conservation tillage practices (ex: no-till, ridge-till) aim to minimize soil disturbance, improve soil health, and reduce erosion by covering 30% of the soil with crop residues after planting.[378] However, such practices may increase the dissolved phosphorus in farm runoff entering ditches and streams, which can worsen when manure is applied to the soil.[379] Without streambank erosion control, these new phosphorus sources combine with "legacy phosphorus" (older phosphorus deposits stored in the banks of ditches and streams), and complicate restoration efforts.[380]
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) assist farmers in preventing nutrient pollution by restoring wetlands on farms through voluntary programs.[381] Other programs include denitrifying bioreactors, and drainage water management known as "controlled tile drainage".[382][383] Controlled tile drainage manages the drainage volume and water table elevation by regulating the flow from a surface or subsurface farm draining system.[384] This method can significantly reduce growing season fluxes of stream water ammonium nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, dissolved reactive phosphorus, and phosphorus.[385]
A photo of an Edge-of-Field Monitoring equipment installed at the edge of an agricultural field to analyze and measure nutrient pollution before it enters local waterways. Northwest Ohio farmers in the Maumee Riverwatershed (the former Great Black Swamp) are voluntarily using a network of this equipment.
The USDA and NRCS utilize a voluntary Edge-of-Field Monitoring network across northwest Ohio's 4.5 million-acre Maumee River watershed to measure and manage phosphorus runoff.[386] Installed at field edges, the equipment analyzes water from tile drains and surface runoff to quantify nutrient loss.[387] This helps farmers optimize fertilizer timing and placement.[388] This data allows participating farmers to make better-informed decisions that maximize yields and conserve resources.[389] The network provides essential validation data for scientists to refine numerical models, ensuring conservation practices protect future water quality and farmland.[390]
The Ohio Department of Natural Resources (Ohio DNR), USDA, and NRCS assist farmers with windbreaks and other soil conservation methods to prevent wind erosion, thereby improving stream water quality.[391][392] They work to mitigate soil loss, recognizing each lost ton as a farming financial loss and a nutrient loss (one optimal soil ton contains 2lbs of nitrogen, 9lbs of phosphorus, and 31lbs of potassium).[393]
A 2013 study analyzed perspectives from farmers in the Maumee watershed, including how they perceive nutrient control measures, how they often have to prioritize "economic over environmental risk", and the financial and personal risks they take in running a farm.[397]
In June 2025, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) selected the Ohio Department of Agriculture for a $1 million grant to provide technical assistance on 300,000 acres of farmland within the former Great Black Swamp region to reduce an estimated 10,000 pounds of total phosphorus from entering the Maumee River watershed.[402]
Industrial pollution, PCBs, and PAHs in the Ottawa and Maumee Rivers compromise water and public health.[403][404][405][406] In 2024, five companies paid $7.2 million for polluting in the Maumee watershed.[407] In 2025, Campbell's admitted to years of polluting the Maumee River.[408]Contaminants of emerging concern also harm the environment, and cause population declines of threatened and endangered freshwater species.[409]
Agricultural groups have pursued legal action, claiming Clean Water Act regulations have neglected to prevent Lake Erie farm pollution, especially from CAFOs.[410] The growth of CAFOs in the former swamp region greatly contribute to nutrient pollution, and require serious manure and fertilizer management.[411][412]
Biodiversity has suffered significantly due to the loss of the Great Black Swamp. Species threatened with extinction include the spotted turtle, which has declined significantly over the years.[413][414][415] The copperbelly water snake has suffered significant population losses. Today, this species inhabits just 50km2 (20 sq miles) of remnant swamp forest in Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana, with experts estimating that only 40 to 100 individuals remain.[416][417][418][419] The piping plover, the loggerhead shrike, and the northern harrier are other species that need protection, and are considered endangered in Ohio.[420]Wetland conservation projects focus on restoring habitats to suit the needs of these species.
Black bears were extirpated in most of Ohio by the 1850s, and the last one in the Great Black Swamp (Paulding County) was killed by 1881. They were rediscovered in the State in the 1970s, having entered from Pennsylvania and West Virginia. The Ohio Department of Natural Resources (Ohio DNR) has been conducting surveys, estimating the current population at 50 to 100 bears. Most of the black bear sightings occur along the borders with Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Only four sightings were recorded between 1993 and 2022 in the former Great Black Swamp region (Fulton and Seneca counties).[421] The Ohio DNR lists the black bear as an Endangered Species in Ohio and bans hunting them.
The sandhill crane was extirpated in Ohio by the early 20th century, but has slowly made a comeback. Most recently, the Ohio DNR, the International Crane Foundation, and the Ohio Bird Conservation Initiative counted 184 sandhill cranes across the former Great Black Swamp region (Fulton, Lucas, Ottawa, and Sandusky counties) during the 2023 and 2024 during nesting seasons.[422] The Ohio DNR lists them as threatened.[423]
Hunting and habitat loss decimated the whooping crane population in North America by the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The whooping crane was thought to have been a resident of the Great Black Swamp region, especially since it still uses the Mississippi Flyway. Despite the Ohio Bird Records Committee believing the species deserved inclusion on the Ohio list of historic bird species, its historic presence cannot be confirmed due to poor record keeping in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including lost/destroyed photographs, documents, crane skins, and even cranes stuffed by taxidermists.[424] Whooping cranes are rarely sighted today, either in the former swamp region or the rest of Ohio.[425]
Indigenous peoples descended from northwest Ohio, today
Indigenous peoples in the U.S. refer to themselves as American Indians or Native Americans, with preferred usage depending on the individual.[426][427] Preferences include identifying by their nations: Wyandot, Chippewa, Seneca, and other groups who called the Great Black Swamp region home, which shaped their languages and cultures for millennia. This self-assertion counters centuries of U.S. government betrayals, including mismanagement of reservations and initiatives (ex: 1956 Indian Relocation Act), and Dawes Act abuses.[428][429]
Commitment to identity compels Indigenous groups to secure historical recognition and the return of ancestral land taken in the 19th century. In 2023, Ohio's Hopewell Ceremonial Earthworks became a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site, and the Native American Indian Center of Central Ohio purchased land for Native life and activities.[430]
A 2024, a 12-episode podcast, The Ohio Country, premiered on WYSO radio to discuss Ohio Indigenous history, highlighting how tribal descendants are reviving their languages and renewing their cultures, and working to restore their historic bonds to Ohio.[431] Indigenous people who previously returned to Ohio include Mother Solomon, who moved from Wyandot territory in Kansas back to Upper Sandusky, Ohio, in 1865.
Stories shared by Indigenous descendants of northwest Ohio directly challenge historical denials, such as the 1982 WBGU-TVPBS documentary's false claim that Indigenous peoples abandoned the Great Black Swamp due to mosquitoes and fear of the land.[340] Historical records confirm Indigenous groups did not willingly leave the swamp region; they were forcibly removed by the U.S. government under the Indian Removal Act. Even Charles Dickens noted their deep reluctance to leave their lands and the graves of their loved ones when he met them in 1842.[155] Being opposed to removal, they were forced from Ohio by overcrowded steamboats, wagons, horseback, or by walking to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi.[432]
Government betrayals continued: when the Wyandot people arrived in Kansas in 1843, they learned they would not be fully paid for the lands they sold to the U.S. government, and that the land the government had promised them in Indian Territory did not exist.[433][434]
Efforts are underway in the 2020s to return an estimated 6,500 Indigenous remains in Ohio museums and collections to their respective nations for reburial, as mandated by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA).[435][436] Because of constant construction projects breaking ground, efforts to identify possible Indigenous graves are ongoing in northwest Ohio.[437][438] In 2003, human bones dating to 1600 B.C.E. (over 3,600 years old), found at an Ottawa County construction site in the former Great Black Swamp, were given a reburial ceremony led by four indigenous people from the Five States Alliance of First Americans.[439]
NAGPRA's inventory reports the number of Indigenous individuals and funerary objects recovered from burial sites within the former Great Black Swamp region. They included the following Ohio counties: Allen (66 individuals, 20 funerary objects), Erie (215 individuals, 189 funerary objects), Fulton (13 individuals, 20 funerary objects), Hancock (2 individuals), Henry (3 individuals), Lucas (5 individuals, 2888 funerary objects), Ottawa (490 individuals, 6 funerary objects), Putnam (3 individuals), Sandusky (634 individuals, 1087 funerary objects), Williams (3 individuals), and Wood (41 individuals, 11 funerary objects). Defiance, Paulding, Seneca, and Van Wert counties were not included. They also included the following counties outside of Ohio: Allen County, Indiana (1 individual); and the Michigan counties of Lenawee (1 individual) and Monroe (3 individuals, 20 funerary objects).[440] In March 2025, the National Park Service and the U.S. Department of the Interior reported on Indigenous human remains from Wood County, identifying at least 1,399 individuals and 4,661 associated funerary objects dating back centuries.[441]
One historian noted the Indigenous peoples practiced cremation and "swamp burials", as well as burials on dry land, and suggested hundreds, perhaps thousands, of burial sites remain undiscovered in the Lake Erie basin.[442]
Indigenous nations from the Great Black Swamp and other Lake Erie regions suffered the psychological trauma of losing their ancestral lands and burial places.[443] These graves were central to their cultural and spiritual beliefs, representing a sacred bond with their ancestors that was violently severed. American history and government leaders have consistently minimized and ignored this historical trauma.[444][445][446] Increasing public awareness and education about the history of Indigenous peoples and the Great Black Swamp helps restore a more complete memory of Ohio's past.[432][447][12]
Indigenous traditional ecological knowledge is gaining recognition for its benefits in land and nature management, offering a critical alternative to commercial resource exploitation.[451][452][453] To support protection efforts, the National Association of Wetland Managers and the U.S. EPA publish handbooks guiding States and Indigenous nations on wetland management.[454][455]
Recent legal challenges, such as the 2023 Supreme Court ruling in Sackett v. EPA, have created obstacles for U.S. wetland protection by focusing on private land-use rights. A 2025 report by the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) argued the Sackett ruling threatens to remove protections for tens of millions of acres of existing wetlands, leaving them vulnerable to pollution and destruction.[456]
Development threatens global wetlands, including the Congo Peatlands, the world's largest tropical peatland swamp. It covers 16.7 million hectares (41 million acres), and stores 30 billion metric tonnes of carbon.[457][458] In 2025, the Democratic Republic of the Congo launched bids for oil and gas drilling rights within the Peatlands.[459] A growing logging industry, some of it illegal and financed by foreign entrepreneurs, threatens to destroy the Peatlands' biodiversity and to complicate the lives of the peoples who have inhabited the region, and have called it home, for countless centuries.[460]
A photo of a buoy used for harmful algal bloom monitoring and research in the Western Basin of Lake Erie. This data helps scientists and Ohio communities forecast and prepare for harmful algal bloom events.
BGSU's Center for Great Lakes and Watershed Studies addresses critical water issues affecting Ohio, Lake Erie, and the former Great Black Swamp region.[461] In October 2025, WBGU-TVPBS interviewed scientists from the center to discuss Ohio water protection, wetland restoration, and applying their research to global water issues.[462]
As the shallowest and warmest of the Great Lakes, Lake Erie is experiencing more frequent harmful algal blooms (HABs). Increased organic nitrogen input encourages Microcystis blooms and toxin production.[463] Rising temperatures are causing HABs to last longer.[464] To manage these threats, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) monitors HABs, utilizing satellites, field observations, models, buoys, and public health reports.[465] NOAA provides hypoxia forecasts to alert decision-makers to cold, hypoxic upwellings near the shore.[466][467] Such comprehensive measures are essential due to the lack of wetlands and increasing pollution.
12345INDIANAMAP-INMAP.HUB.ARCGIS.COM. "Presettlement Land Cover IDNR 2016". Indiana Geographic Information Office, Indiana State Government, WEB: last updated December 18, 2024.
↑Atwater, Caleb, 1778-1867. "War with Great Britain". A History of the State of Ohio, Natural And Civil, 2nd edition. Cincinnati: Stereotyped by Glezen & Shepard, 1838, p. 214.
↑Hallett, Kaycee (April 14, 2014). "History of the Black Swamp". The Black Swamp Journal. Retrieved December 3, 2019.
↑Ohio DNR. State Listed Species. Ohio Dept. of Natural Resources, Publication 5356(R0924), September 2024.
123United States Geological Survey (2025). Delta, OH (Topographic map) (Map). 1:1,155,581. US Topo / 3DEP Elevation. Reston, VA: United States Department of the Interior, USGS. §Point of citation, SE quadrant: 41.558889°N 84.000556°W. Retrieved November 28, 2025– via The National Map (3DEP Elevation - Hillshade Stretched Layer, Hydro Cached Layer, and Governmental Unit Boundaries Layer).
↑Killey, Myrna M. "Illinois' Ice Age Legacy". Geoscience Education Series 14, Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Illinois State Geological Survey, 2007, p. 17.
↑Shane, L. C. K. "Intensity and rate of vegetational and climatic changes in the Ohio region between 14,000 and 9,000 14C yr B.P.", In: W. S. Dancey (ed.), The First Discovery of America: Archaeological Evidence of the Early Inhabitants of the Ohio Area, Ohio Archaeological Council, Columbus, OH, 1994, p. 7-21.
↑Whitt, Laurelyn; Clarke, Alan W. "North American Genocides". North American Genocides: Indigenous Nations, Settler Colonialism, and International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019, pp. i–ii.
↑Kappler, Charles J., compiler and editor. "Treaty with the Wyandot, Etc., 1795". Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, Vol. 2 (Treaties), Washington, D.C.: The Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, 1904, pp. 39–45.
↑Royce, Charles C., compiler. "Schedule of Indian Land Cessions (Cessions 15, 18, 20)". Indian Land Cessions in the United States, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1896–'97, J.W. Powell, Director. Washington, D.C., 1899, pp. 654–655.
↑Kappler, Charles J., compiler and editor. "Treaty with the Ottawa, Etc., 1807". Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, Vol. 2 (Treaties), Washington, D.C.: The Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, 1904, pp. 92–95.
↑Royce, Charles C., compiler. "Schedule of Indian Land Cessions (Cession 66)". Indian Land Cessions in the United States, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1896–'97, J.W. Powell, Director. Washington, D.C., 1899, pp. 674–675.
↑Kappler, Charles J., compiler and editor. "Treaty with the Chippewa, Etc., 1808". Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, Vol. 2 (Treaties), Washington, D.C.: The Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, 1904, pp. 99–100.
↑Royce, Charles C., compiler. "Schedule of Indian Land Cessions (Cession 70)". Indian Land Cessions in the United States, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1896–'97, J.W. Powell, Director. Washington, D.C., 1899, pp. 676–677.
↑McGarvey, Bruce E. "Landscape Myths of the Black Swamp (Part I)." Northwest Ohio Quarterly, vol. 60, no. 2, Spring 1988, p. 58.
↑MARBLEHEADOHIO.ORG. "History: the First Battle Site". Village of Marblehead, Ohio (government website), Community/Page/History, 2025.
↑Atwater, Caleb, 1778–1867. "War with Great Britain". A History of the State of Ohio, Natural And Civil, 2nd edition. Cincinnati: Stereotyped by Glezen & Shepard, 1838, p. 225.
↑NPS.GOV. "Person: Tecumseh". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, WEB: last updated November 12, 2023.
↑Kappler, Charles J., compiler and editor. "Treaty with the Wyandot, Etc., 1817". Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, Vol. 2 (Treaties), Washington, D.C.: The Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, 1904, pp. 145–155.
↑Royce, Charles C., compiler. "Schedule of Indian Land Cessions (Cessions 87 & 88)". Indian Land Cessions in the United States, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1896–'97, J.W. Powell, Director. Washington, D.C., 1899, pp. 684–685.
↑Whitt, Laurelyn; Clarke, Alan W. "North American Genocides Denial". North American Genocides: Indigenous Nations, Settler Colonialism, and International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019, pp. 8–25.
↑Whitt, Laurelyn; Clarke, Alan W. "Introduction". North American Genocides: Indigenous Nations, Settler Colonialism, and International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019, p. 4.
↑American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. The Missionary Herald ... for the Year 1830. Boston: Printed for the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Vol. XXVI, 1830, p. 13.
↑Kappler, Charles J., compiler and editor. "Treaty with the Ottawa, Etc., 1831". Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, Vol. 2 (Treaties), Washington, D.C.: The Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, 1904, pp. 335–339.
↑Royce, Charles C., compiler. "Schedule of Indian Land Cessions (Cessions 167, 168)". Indian Land Cessions in the United States, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1896–'97, J.W. Powell, Director. Washington, D.C., 1899, pp. 734–735.
↑Kappler, Charles J., compiler and editor. "Treaty with the Wyandot, 1832". Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, Vol. 2 (Treaties), Washington, D.C.: The Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, 1904, pp. 339–341.
↑Royce, Charles C., compiler. "Schedule of Indian Land Cessions (Cession 171)". Indian Land Cessions in the United States, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1896–'97, J.W. Powell, Director. Washington, D.C., 1899, pp. 734–735.
↑Kappler, Charles J., compiler and editor. "Treaty with the Ottawa, 1833". Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, Vol. 2 (Treaties), Washington, D.C.: The Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, 1904, pp. 392–394.
↑Royce, Charles C., compiler. "Schedule of Indian Land Cessions (Cession 183)". Indian Land Cessions in the United States, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1896–'97, J.W. Powell, Director. Washington, D.C., 1899, pp. 748–749.
↑Various authors. "Wyandot Removal Trail". Cultural Division of Wyandotte Nation, University of Cincinnati, Web: 2024.
↑Atwater, Caleb, 1778–1867. "War with Great Britain". A History of the State of Ohio, Natural And Civil, 2nd edition. Cincinnati: Stereotyped by Glezen & Shepard, 1838, p. 190-191.
↑Maumee Valley Pioneer Association. Addresses, Memorials And Sketches. Maumee Valley Pioneer Association, Toledo, Ohio: Vrooman, Anderson, & Bateman, 1897, p. 12.
↑NPS.GOV. "Network to Freedom". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, WEB: Updated February 12, 2025.
↑Network to Freedom. "Visit Underground Railroad Locations". Network to Freedom, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, WEB: updated August 18, 2025.
↑Atwater, Caleb, 1778–1867. "War with Great Britain"; "Common Roads and Highways". A History of the State of Ohio, Natural And Civil, 2nd edition. Cincinnati: Stereotyped by Glezen & Shepard, 1838, p. 212-223; 284.
↑Evers-Ross, C.W.; Oblinger, F.J. "Oil in Wood County". Reminiscences of pioneer days in Wood County and the Maumee Valley: a pioneer scrap book. Bowling Green, Ohio: s.n.; 1909, pp. 104–105.
↑WGTE Public Media. "Cornerstones: the Irish in Toledo". WGTE Public Documentaries: Toledo Stories. Toledo Lucas County Public Library Collections, October 8, 2003.
↑Everett, Homer (1813-1887), and H.Z. Williams & Bro. History of Sandusky County, Ohio. Cleveland, Ohio: H. Z. Williams & Bro., 1882, p. 135.
↑WGTE Public Media."Cornerstones: the Germans". WGTE Public Documentaries: Toledo Stories. Toledo Lucas County Public Library Collections, November 14, 2002.
↑Boberg, Alice; Wroblewski, Ralph. "Part Two: Polish Immigration to the United States". Polish Americans and their Communities of Cleveland. Cleveland Ethnic Heritage Studies, Cleveland State University, 1997, Section: "Economic Immigration: 1865-1920's – Polish Historical and Economic Backgrounds", ISBN978-1-936323-13-5
↑American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). "Buckeye Steam Traction Ditcher". American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Hancock Historical Museum Association, Findlay, Ohio, August 5, 1988.
↑United States Geological Survey (2025). Hoytville, OH (Topographic map) (Map). 1:72,224. US Topo / 3DEP Elevation. Reston, VA: United States Department of the Interior, USGS. §Point of citation, NW quadrant: 41.236285°N 83.830682°W. Retrieved November 27, 2025– via The National Map (3DEP Elevation - Slope Layer, Elevation Contours Layer, and Light Gray Canvas Basemap).
↑Wilhelm, Peter W. "Draining The Black Swamp: Henry and Wood Counties, Ohio, 1870-1920." Northwest Ohio Quarterly, vol. 56, no. 3, Summer 1984, p. 86.
↑United States Geological Survey (2025). Hoytville, OH (Topographic map) (Map). 1:72,224. US Topo / 3DEP Elevation. Reston, VA: United States Department of the Interior, USGS. §Point of citation, NW quadrant: 41.236285°N 83.830682°W. Retrieved November 27, 2025– via The National Map (3DEP Elevation - Hillshade Stretched Layer).
↑Wilhelm, Peter W. "Draining The Black Swamp: Henry and Wood Counties, Ohio, 1870-1920." Northwest Ohio Quarterly, vol. 56, no. 3, Summer 1984, pp. 80-81.
↑1920 Fourteenth Census of the United States. "Drainage 1920 United States". Dept. of Commerce, Government Printing Office, 1920.
↑ASME.ORG "Buckeye Steam Traction Ditcher". The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Hancock Historical Museum Association, Findlay, OH, August 5, 1988.
↑Wilhelm, Peter W. "Draining The Black Swamp: Henry and Wood Counties, Ohio, 1870-1920." Northwest Ohio Quarterly, vol. 56, no. 3, Summer 1984, p. 80.
↑Carter, M.R. "Ch: Conservation Tillage". Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment, edited by Daniel Hillel. Academic Press, 2005, 1:306–311. ISBN978-0-12-348530-4
↑OHIOLINE.OSU.EDU. "Respiratory Impairment in Agriculture". Ohio AgrAbility Fact Sheet Series (Ohioline), Ohio State University Extension, WEB: November 8, 2013.
↑COASTALSCIENCE.NOAA.GOV. "Lake Erie Harmful Algal Bloom Forecast". National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, WEB: 2025.
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. The Missionary Herald ... for the Year 1830. Boston: Printed for the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Vol. XXVI, 1830.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). "Buckeye Steam Traction Ditcher". American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Hancock Historical Museum Association, Findlay, Ohio, August 5, 1988.
Cleveland Museum of Natural History. "Giving Spotted Turtles a Head Start". YouTube Channel of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. July 13, 2017.
COASTALSCIENCE.NOAA.GOV. "Lake Erie Harmful Algal Bloom Forecast". National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, WEB: 2025.
INDIANAMAP-INMAP.HUB.ARCGIS.COM. "Presettlement Land Cover IDNR 2016". Indiana Geographic Information Office, Indiana State Government, WEB: last updated December 18, 2024.
Killey, Myrna M. "Illinois' Ice Age Legacy". Geoscience Education Series 14, Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Illinois State Geological Survey, 2007.
Network to Freedom. "Visit Underground Railroad Locations". Network to Freedom, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, WEB: updated August 18, 2025.
OHIOLINE.OSU.EDU. "Respiratory Impairment in Agriculture". Ohio AgrAbility Fact Sheet Series (Ohioline), Ohio State University Extension, WEB: November 8, 2013.
Shane, L. C. K. "Intensity and rate of vegetational and climatic changes in the Ohio region between 14,000 and 9,000 14C yr B.P.", In: W. S. Dancey (ed.), The First Discovery of America: Archaeological Evidence of the Early Inhabitants of the Ohio Area, Ohio Archaeological Council, Columbus, OH, 1994, p.7–21.
United States Geological Survey. "National Map Viewer: Delta, OH (Topographic map)". US Topo / 3DEP Elevation. Reston, VA: United States Department of the Interior, USGS, 2025. Accessed via The National Map Viewer.
United States Geological Survey. "National Map Viewer: Hoytville, OH (Topographic map)". US Topo / 3DEP Elevation. Reston, VA: United States Department of the Interior, USGS, 2025. Accessed via The National Map Viewer.
Various authors. "Original Natural Vegetation of Ohio" GIS interactive map. The Natural Vegetation of Ohio, at the Time of the Earliest Land Surveys by Robert B. Gordon, Ohio Biological Survey, 1966. ArcGIS map updated April 3, 2019.
WGTE Public Media. "Cornerstones: the Irish in Toledo". WGTE Public Documentaries: Toledo Stories. Toledo Lucas County Public Library Collections, October 8, 2003.
WGTE Public Media."Cornerstones: the Germans". WGTE Public Documentaries: Toledo Stories. Toledo Lucas County Public Library Collections, November 14, 2002.
Wilcox, Frank. N. Ohio Indian Trails. Cleveland, OH: The Gates Press, 1933.
Wilhelm, Peter W. "Draining The Black Swamp: Henry and Wood Counties, Ohio, 1870-1920." Northwest Ohio Quarterly, vol. 56, no. 3, Summer 1984, pp. 79-93.
Grieser, O.; Beck, E. Out of the Wilderness, History of the Central Mennonite Church, 1835–1960, The Dean Hicks Company, Grand Rapids Michigan, 1960.
Jones, Robert Leslie. The History of Agriculture in Ohio to 1880. Kent State University Press, 1983.
McDonnell, Michael A. Masters of Empire: Great Lakes Indians and the Making of America. New York: Hill and Wang, 2015.
Ostler, Jeffrey. Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019.
Stockwell, Mary. The Other Trail of Tears: The Removal of the Ohio Indians, Westholme Publishing, 2014.
Stothers, David M. "The Protohistoric Time Period in the Southwestern Lake Erie Region: European-Derived Trade Material, Population Movement and Cultural Realignment." In Cultures before Contact: The Late Prehistory of Ohio and Surrounding Regions, edited by Robert A. Genheimer. Columbus: Ohio Archaeological Council, 2000.
Stothers, David M. and Timothy J. Abel. "Beads, Brass, and Beaver: Archaeological Reflections of Protohistoric 'Fire Nation' Trade and Exchange." Archaeology of Eastern North America 19 (1991): 121–134.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
