Genocide is the intentional destruction of a people[a] in whole or in part. The term was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin. It is defined in Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) of 1948 as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group's conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."[1]
The preamble to the CPPCG states that "genocide is a crime under international law, contrary to the spirit and aims of the United Nations and condemned by the civilized world", and it also states that "at all periods of history genocide has inflicted great losses on humanity."[1] Genocide is widely considered to be the epitome of human evil,[2] and has been referred to as the "crime of crimes".[3][4][5] The Political Instability Task Force estimated that 43 genocides occurred between 1956 and 2016, resulting in 50million deaths.[6] The UNHCR estimated that a further 50million had been displaced by such episodes of violence.[6]
The debate continues over what legally constitutes genocide. One definition is any conflict that the International Criminal Court has so designated. Mohammed Hassan Kakar argues that the definition should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator.[7] He prefers the definition from Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn, which defines genocide as "a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group so defined by the perpetrator."[8]
In literature, some scholars have popularly emphasized the role that the Soviet Union played in excluding political groups from the international definition of genocide, which is contained in the Genocide Convention of 1948,[9] and in particular they have written that Joseph Stalin may have feared greater international scrutiny of the political killings that occurred in the country, such as the Great Purge;[10] however, this claim is not supported by evidence. The Soviet view was shared and supported by many diverse countries, and they were also in line with Raphael Lemkin's original conception,[b] and it was originally promoted by the World Jewish Congress.[12]
According to Canadian scholar Adam Jones, if a dominant group of people had little in common with a marginalized group of people, it was easy for the dominant group to define the other as subhuman. As a result, the marginalized group might be labeled as a threat that must be eliminated.[13] Jones continues: "The difficulty, as Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn pointed out in their early study, is that such historical records as exist are ambiguous and undependable. While history today is generally written with some fealty to 'objective' facts, most previous accounts aimed rather to praise the writer's patron (normally the leader) and to emphasize the superiority of one's own gods and religious beliefs."[14]
Wrote Chalk and Jonassohn: "Historically and anthropologically peoples have always had a name for themselves. In a great many cases, that name meant 'the people' to set the owners of that name off against all other people who were considered of lesser quality in some way. If the differences between the people and some other society were particularly large in terms of religion, language, manners, customs, and so on, then such others were seen as less than fully human: pagans, savages, or even animals."[15]
Yarin Eski, a criminologist at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, argues that "genocidal violence and mass exploitation are perhaps the defining characteristics of being human," and he also describes how our talent for murder put an end to the Neanderthals, and it has also colored all subsequent human history.[16] Similarly, Kwang Hyun Ho stresses the fact that modern humans possess a mutated gene which is related to aggression and combined with fossil evidence, the possession of it by early modern humans proves that the Neanderthals were killed in acts of violence which were committed by early modern humans.[17] The first person to publish an analysis of a Neanderthal, French paleontologist Marcellin Boule, was also the first to suppose (in 1912) that early humans violently replaced Neanderthals.[18] In particular, larger tribal groupings and projectile weapons were supposed to give modern humans an edge in violent conflicts with Neanderthals and other indigenous populations of archaic humans that allowed early modern humans to wipe out other hominin species as they spread out of Africa.[19] This view is at odds with the more supported views that Neanderthal extinction occurred due to events such as interbreeding,[20] inbreeding,[21][22] disease,[23] and climate change.[24][25] Archaeologist Helle Vandkilde highlights how trauma that is indicative of interpersonal violence is only present in approximately 20 cases of Neanderthal and Homo sapiens skeletal remains in the Palaeolithic.[26]
Chiefdom genocides
Historian Max Ostrovsky concludes that chiefdoms performed the most genocidal warfare in human history and practiced this kind of warfare all over the world, wherever culture reached the level of chiefdom.[27] He based his conclusion on anthropological researches[28] and notes that Thomas Malthus collected many reports on genocidal wars by chiefdoms.
Malthus regards chiefdoms as an intermediate stage between independent tribes and states. By contrast to independent tribes, chiefdoms cumulated power after their decisive military victories but they did not learn to enslave their defeated enemies yet. Hence, according to Malthus, chiefdoms simply slaughtered them: "Their object of war is not conquest but destruction... Among the Iroquois, the phrase by which they express their resolution to make war against an enemy is 'let us go and eat that nation.'"[29]
The verb "eat" has a literal meaning. The cannibalism of chiefdoms appears in the military genocidal context which is referred to as "post-battle rage" rather than hunger.[30]Immanuel Kant supposed that slavery and imperialism appeared at a later, albeit equally savage, stage, when peoples learned "how to make better use of their conquered enemies than to dine off them."[31]
Ostrovsky found that the hypothesis of chiefdom genocide applies to the Israelites of the Judges period (c. 1150–1025 BCE) when they formed a chiefdom (of twelve tribes): When Israel defeats the Canaanite nations, the tradition commands, "you must devote them to complete destruction. You shall make no covenant with them and show no mercy to them" (Deuteronomy 7:1–2). Similarly to the chiefdoms which are described in the Age of Discovery, the genocide of the Hebrew ban was total which means that it extended to women, children and domestic animals (1 Samuel 15:3). "[You] must not leave anything that breathes" (Deuteronomy 20:16). The Bible exaggerates when it claims that the genocide of the Canaanite peoples (Joshua 10:40–41, 11:21–23, 6:18–9) was total, but, according to Ostrovsky, "whenever the Israelite chiefdom won, the vanquished did not survive."[32] Given the vast data on chiefdom-level warfare, he finds the historicity of the Canaanite genocide credible.
Scholars devoted much of their attention to the Canaanite genocide and scholars of theology struggled to explain why Moses commanded the Israelites to wage a "genocidal" conquest of Canaan[33][34][35] and the secular scholar Richard Dawkins characterizes Yahweh as a "genocidal" and "blood thirsty ethnic cleanser."[36] The genocides which were committed during the Judges period were partial genocides, such as the destruction of the Midianites by the Israelites (Numbers 31:7–18). Adam Jones notes that this massacre is an example of the partial destruction and the partial incorporation of an enemy ethnicity.[37]
Julius Caesar's army waged a genocidal war against the Germanic chiefdoms (Gallic Wars 1:17). The Annales Bertiniani recorded the impression of survivors from the onslaught of the chiefdom of the Vikings: "Wild beasts... killing babies, children, young men, old men, fathers, sons and mothers... They overthrow, they despoil, they destroy, they burn, they ravage; sinister cohort, fatal phalanx, cruel host."[32]
Gendercides
Scholars of antiquity differentiate genocides from gendercides, in which groups of people were conquered and the males who belonged to the conquered groups were killed but the children (particularly the girls) and the women were incorporated into the conquering groups. Jones notes, "Chalk and Jonassohn provide a wide-ranging selection of historical events such as the Assyrian Empire's root-and branch depredations in the first half of the first millennium BCE, and the destruction of Melos by Athens during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE), a gendercidal rampage described by Thucydides in his 'Melian Dialogue'".[37] Jones and Wendy Lower also detail how gendercides are a common feature through much classical literature in the western tradition.[38] Additionally, Jones highlights in an article published in the Journal of Genocide Research in 2000, that the gender specific targeting of men for extermination has persisted through many cases of conflict in the 20th century.[39]
Prehistoric Andes
Anthropologist and archaeologist Danielle Kurin in the Cambridge World History of Genocide argues that there is archaeological evidence of genocidal violence at various points in time in the prehistoric Andes in South America.[40]
During the Third Punic War, the city of Carthage was besieged by Roman forces for three years (149–146 BCE). Once the city was breached, the Romans spent seven days systematically destroying it and killing its inhabitants. Ben Kiernan has labelled the devastation of the city and the massacre of its population "the first genocide".[41][37] Kiernan highlights calls for the destruction of Carthage before the third Punic war, and escalating rhetoric during the siege, with Polybius stating in his report from the battle that the Carthaginians were "utterly exterminated".[42][43] Scholars Bridget Conley and Alex de Waal, as well as Lemkin considered the destruction of Carthage to have been genocidal.[44][45]
In 88 BCE, king Mithridates VI of Pontus ordered the murder of all Italics in Asia Minor, resulting in the deaths of about 100,000, mainly civilians.[46][47] The death toll makes it one of the deadliest recorded genocides in classical antiquity. This action provoked the Romans, leading to the First Mithridatic War.[48]
Julius Caesar's campaigns
Julius Caesar's campaign against the Tencteri and Usipetes has been characterized as a genocide.[49][50] During the Gallic Wars Caesar reported that he burnt every village and building that he could find in the territory of the Eburones, drove off all of the cattle, and his men and beasts consumed all of the corn that the weather of the autumnal season had not destroyed. He left those who had hid themselves, if there were any, alive in the hope that they would all die of hunger in the winter. Caesar said that he wanted to annihilate the Eburones as well as their name.[51][52] Their country was soon occupied by a Germanic tribe with a different name, the Tungri. However, the report by Tacitus which states that the Tungri were the original "Germani" who first crossed the Rhine, and the way this matches Caesar's description of the Eburones and their neighbours, leads to the possibility that they survived under a new name.[original research?]
However, historian Johannes Heinrichs[de] (2008) argues that the genocide of the Eburones in 53 BCE could not have happened as Caesar claimed.[53] If the systematic destruction of infrastructure by the Roman forces was intended to prevent the local people from regaining power, the physical extermination of them proved to be impractical. The available areas of refuge which were hardly accessible to the Roman legions were numerous: the low mountain range of the Ardennes, the swamps and wastelands which were located towards the Menapii, the coastal islands, etc. Moreover, Caesar's second attempt to annihilate the tribe two years later is proof that the community survived, and its apparent ability to regenerate itself lead Caesar to believe that he needed to launch more raids against them.[53] According to Nico Roymans,[54] their disappearance from the political map may have resulted from "a policy of damnatio memoriae on the part of the Roman authorities, in combination with the confiscation of Eburonean territory".[55] A great part of their gold fell into Roman hands during repeated Roman raids on the Eburones in 53–51 BCE, and then it was melted down and carried off.[56]
The ruins of Horvat 'Ethri display a destruction layer dating to the revolt, along with a mass grave containing the remains of 15 individuals, including one with signs of beheading
The Bar Kokhba revolt (Hebrew: מֶרֶד בַּר כּוֹכְבָא; Mered Bar Kokhba) was a rebellion against the Roman Empire by the Jews of the Roman province of Judea, led by Simon bar Kokhba. Waged from circa 132–136 CE,[58][59] it was the last of three major Jewish–Roman wars. The revolt erupted as a result of religious and political tensions which existed in Judea since the end of the failed First Revolt in 66–73 CE. These tensions were exacerbated by the establishment of a large Roman military presence in Judea, changes in administrative life and the economy, together with the outbreak and suppression of Jewish revolts from Mesopotamia to Libya and Cyrenaica.[60] The proximate reasons seem to be the construction of a new city, Aelia Capitolina, over the ruins of Jerusalem and the erection of a temple to Jupiter on the Temple Mount. The Church Fathers and rabbinic literature emphasize the role of Rufus, governor of Judea, in provoking the revolt.[61] The Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in the extensive depopulation of Judean communities, more so than during the First Jewish–Roman War of 70 CE.[62] According to Cassius Dio, 580,000 Jews perished in the war and many more died of hunger and disease. In addition, many Judean war captives were sold into slavery.[63] The Jewish communities of Judea were devastated to an extent which some scholars describe as a genocide.[62][64] However, the Jewish population remained strong in other parts of Palestine, thriving in Galilee, Golan, Bet Shean Valley and the eastern, southern and western edges of Judea.[65][66] Roman casualties were also considered heavy—XXII Deiotariana was disbanded after serious losses.[67][68] In addition, some historians argue that Legio IX Hispana's disbandment in the mid-2nd century could have been a result of this war. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel, Emperor Hadrian wiped the name off the map and replaced it with Syria Palaestina.[69][70][71]
Jie and Wu Hu
The Later Zhao dynasty (319–351) was a Jie-led state that ruled most of northern China during the Sixteen Kingdoms period in the fourth century CE. At the time, northern China was home to many non-Han Chinese tribes collectively known in historiography as the Wu Hu or "Five Barbarians", of which the Jie were one of them. In its final years, the Later Zhao fell into civil war between members of the imperial family over the throne. One powerful member, Shi Min (later known as Ran Min), was an adopted Han Chinese, and in 350, he seized control of the emperor and capital, Ye through a coup.[72]
After surviving multiple assassination attempts, Shi Min concluded that he could no longer trust the Jie and other non-Han people under his command. In late 350, he issued an order to kill any Jie or central Asians found in the city of Ye, rewarding any Han Chinese for killing any Jie or "barbarian" person they find.[72] Shi Min personally led his army to massacre the tribes in the capital, while ordering his generals to purge their armies of tribespeople. The Jie were an ethnic group which possessed racial characteristics which included high-bridged noses and bushy beards,[73] and as a result, they were easily identified and killed. However, many of the people killed were also mistakenly-identified Han Chinese. In total, 200,000 of them were reportedly massacred.[72][74] The historians David Graff and Victoria Tin-Bor Hui both describe the actions of Shi Min as a "genocidal campaign",[72] alongside historian Steven L. Jacobs who also considers it as an example of genocide.[75]
Zandaqa
Zindīq (زنديق) or Zandik (𐭦𐭭𐭣𐭩𐭪) was initially used to negatively denote the followers of the Manichaeian religion in the Sasanian Empire.[76] By the time of the 8th-century Abbasid Caliphate however, the meaning of the word zindīq and the adjectival zandaqa had broadened and could loosely denote many things: Gnostic Dualists as well as followers of Manichaeism, agnostics, and atheists.[77][78] However, many of those who were persecuted for being zandaqa under the Abbasids claimed to be Muslims, and when it was applied to Muslims, the accusation was that the accused secretly harbored Manichaean beliefs.[78] "The proof for such an accusation was sought, if at all, in an indication of some kind of dualism, or if that individual openly flouted Islamic beliefs or practices."[78] As such, certain Muslim poets of early Abbasid times could also be accused of being zandaqa as much as an actual Manichaean might be.[78]
The charge of being a zandaqa was a serious one, and it could cost the accused his/her life.[78][79][pageneeded] A history of the time cites the "Spiller" caliph Abu al-'Abbas as having said "tolerance is laudable, except in matters which are dangerous to religious belief, or matters which are dangerous to the sovereign's dignity."[80] The third Abbasid caliph, Al-Mahdi, ordered the composition of polemical works that were to be used to refute the beliefs of freethinkers and other heretics, and for years, he attempted to completely exterminate them, hunting them down and exterminating freethinkers in large numbers, putting anyone who was merely suspected of being a zindiq to death.[80] Al-Mahdi's successors, the caliphs al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, continued the pogroms, although they occurred with diminished intensity during the reign of the latter and were later ended by him.[78][81] In turn this policy influenced the Mihna policy of al-Ma'mun which targeted those Muslim religious scholars and officials who refused to accept the doctrine of the created nature of the Quran.[78]
The Harrying of the North was a series of military campaigns waged by William the Conqueror in the winter of 1069–1070 to subjugate Northern England, where the presence of the last Wessex claimant, Edgar Ætheling, had encouraged Anglo-Saxon Northumbrian, Anglo-Scandinavian and Danish rebellions. William's strategy, implemented during the winter of 1069–70 (he spent Christmas 1069 in York), has been described by William E. Kapelle and some other modern scholars as an act of genocide.[84] Medieval historian C. P. Lewis details how the consensus view of the Harrying of the North is that it was a particularly harsh course of action and that "modern labelling commonly falls not far short of genocide."[85] Lewis also highlights how the limitations of the evidence available mean it is difficult to assess whether the Harrying of the North meets any of the frameworks of genocide.[86]
From the 11th to the 16th century, hundreds of massacres were carried out in Europe against Jewish communities.[87][88] The historian Maya Soifer Irish details how these pogroms meet the criteria of "genocidal massacres" as developed by the genocide scholars Leo Kuper and Ben Kiernan.[89]
The Albigensian Crusade or the Cathar Crusade (1209–1229) was a 20-year-long military campaign which Pope Innocent III initiated to eliminate Catharism in Languedoc, in Southern France. The Crusade was primarily prosecuted by the French crown and it promptly took on a political flavour. It resulted in a significant reduction in the number of practising Cathars, and realigned the County of Toulouse in Languedoc, bringing it into the sphere of the French crown, and diminishing the distinct regional culture and high level of influence of the Counts of Barcelona.
Pope Innocent III excommunicating the Albigensians (left). The Albigensians being massacred by the crusaders (right).
Raphael Lemkin, who coined the word "genocide" in the 20th century,[90] referred to the Albigensian Crusade as "one of the most conclusive cases of genocide in religious history".[91]Mark Gregory Pegg wrote that "The Albigensian Crusade ushered genocide into the West by linking divine salvation to mass murder, by making slaughter as loving an act as His sacrifice on the cross."[92]
Robert E. Lerner argues that Pegg's classification of the Albigensian Crusade as a genocide is inappropriate, on the ground that it "was proclaimed against unbelievers ... not against a 'genus' or people; those who joined the crusade had no intention of annihilating the population of southern France ... If Pegg wishes to connect the Albigensian Crusade to modern ethnic slaughter, well—words fail me (as they do him)."[93]
Laurence Marvin is not as dismissive as Lerner regarding Pegg's contention that the Albigensian Crusade was a genocide. He does however take issue with Pegg's argument that the Albigensian Crusade formed an important historical precedent for later genocides, including the Holocaust.[94]
Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Solveig Björnson describe the Albigensian Crusade as "the first ideological genocide".[95] Kurt Jonassohn and Frank Chalk, who together founded the Montreal Institute for Genocide and Human Rights Studies, include a detailed case study of the Albigensian Crusade in their genocide studies textbook The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies, authored by Joseph R. Strayer and Malise Ruthven.[96]
In 2023, Pegg highlights in the Cambridge World History of Genocide, how since his 2008 work a variety of other scholars from different disciplinary backgrounds have concluded that the Albigensian crusade was genocidal in nature.[97]
Quoting Eric Margolis, Jones claims that in the 13th century, the Mongol armies under Genghis Khan were genocidal killers[98] who were known to eradicate whole nations.[99] He ordered the extermination of the Tata Mongols, and all Kankali males in Bukhara who were "taller than a wheel"[100] using a technique called measuring against the linchpin. In the end, half of the Mongol tribes were exterminated by Genghis Khan. Rosanne Klass referred to the Mongols' rule of Afghanistan as "genocide".[101] It has been estimated that approximately 11% of the world's population was killed either during or immediately after the Turco-Mongol invasions (around 37.75 – 60 million people genocide in Eurasia, out of which at least 35 million deaths were in China).[102] If the calculations are accurate, the events would be the deadliest acts of mass killings in human history. The second campaign against the Western Xia, the final military action which was led by Genghis Khan, because he died during it, involved the intentional and systematic destruction of Western Xia cities and culture.[citation needed] According to John Man, because of this policy of total obliteration, Western Xia is little known to anyone other than experts in the field because very few records of the existence of that society still exist. He states that "There is a case to be made that this was the first ever recorded example of attempted genocide. It was certainly very successful ethnocide."[103]
Historian and specialist in the Mongol empire, Timothy May, details how genocide scholars have been divided as to whether the Mongol conquests should be considered a case of genocide.[104] He then argues that while the Mongols employed massacres as a tool of war frequently in their conquests, they could only be described as genocidal in some cases.[105] Examples May points to include the Tanguts at Zhongxing and the Nizari Ismailis.[106]
Tamerlane
Similarly, the extreme brutality of the Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane was well-documented and his conquests were accompanied by genocidal massacres.[107] William Rubinstein wrote: "In Assyria (1393–4)—Tamerlane got around—he killed all the Christians he could find, including everyone in the, then, Christian city of Tikrit, thus virtually destroying Assyrian Church of the East. Impartially, however, Tamerlane also slaughtered Shi'ite Muslims, Jews and heathens."[108]
Thule expansionism
Evidence suggests that the Inuit are the descendants of the Birnirk culture of Siberia and Alaska,[109][110] who expanded into northern Canada and Greenland, where they completely replaced the Indigenous Dorset people through the Thule culture, both genetically and culturally, sometime after 1300 AD.[111] The question of why the Dorset disappeared so completely has led some to suggest that Thule invaders wiped out the Dorset people in "an example of prehistoric genocide."[112]
The conquest of the Canary Islands by the Crown of Castille took place between 1402 and 1496.[116] Initially carried out by Norman aristocrats on behalf of the Castilian nobility in exchange for a covenant of allegiance to the crown, the process was later carried out by the Spanish crown itself during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs.[117] Some historians have labelled the conquest genocidal in nature[118][119] due to the brutal treatment of the Islands' indigenous Guanches which contributed to their extinction as a distinct group. Historian Francisco Morales Padrón[es] wrote in 1978 that the conquest of the islands constituted a genocide.[120] Historian Daniele Conversi locates the conquest of the Canary Islands within the history of colonial and imperial genocides.[119] Genocide scholar Mark Levene has stated that while there was not the intent by the Castilian crown to commit genocide, the result of their conquest was the same as if they had intended to commit genocide.[120] Historian and specialist in genocide studies Mohamed Adhikari published an article in 2017 analysing the settler colonial history of the Canary Islands as a case of genocide,[121] saying that the Canary Islands were the scene of "Europe's first overseas settler colonial genocide," and that the mass killing and enslavement of natives, along with forced deportation, sexual violence and confiscation of land and children constituted an attempt to "destroy in whole" the Guanche people.[122][120] The tactics used in the Canary Islands in the 15th century served as a model for the Iberian colonisation of the Americas.[123][119][124]
The transatlantic slave trade resulted in a vast and as yet unknown loss of life for African captives both in and outside the Americas. Estimates have ranged from as low as 2 million[125] to as high 60 million.[126]Patrick Manning estimates that about 12 million slaves entered the Atlantic trade between the 16th and 19th centuries, but about 1.5 million died on board ship. About 10.5 million slaves arrived in the Americas. Besides the slaves who died on the Middle Passage, more Africans likely died during the slave raids and wars in Africa and forced marches to ports. Manning estimates that 4 million died inside Africa after capture, and many more died young. Manning's estimate covers the 12 million who were originally destined for the Atlantic, as well as the 6 million destined for Arabian slave markets and the 8 million destined for African markets.[127] Of the slaves shipped to the Americas, the largest share went to Brazil and the Caribbean.[128]
Canadian scholar Adam Jones characterized the mass death of millions of Africans during the Atlantic slave trade as a genocide due to the fact that it was "one of the worst holocausts in human history" because it resulted in 15 to 20 million deaths according to one estimate, and he contradicts arguments such as the one which states that "it was in slave owners' interest to keep slaves alive, not exterminate them" by stating that they are "mostly sophistry" by stating: "the killing and destruction were intentional, whatever the incentives to preserve survivors of the Atlantic passage for labor exploitation. To revisit the issue of intent already touched on: If an institution is deliberately maintained and expanded by discernible agents, though all are aware of the hecatombs of casualties it is inflicting on a definable human group, then why should this not qualify as genocide?"[129]
A Congolese man, Nsala, looking at the severed hand and foot of his five-year-old daughter who was killed, cooked, and cannibalized by members of the Force Publique in 1904. The photo was taken by Alice Seely Harris.
From 1885 to 1908, the Congo Free State in central Africa was privately controlled by Leopold II, the second King of the Belgians from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, who extracted a fortune from the land by the use of forced labour of natives. Under his regime, there were 2 to 15 million deaths among the Congolese people.[131] Deliberate killings, abusive punishments, and general exploitation were major causes of the deaths. As in the colonization of the Americas, European diseases, hitherto unknown in the region, also led to a considerable number of deaths. Because the main motive for the killings was financial gain, it has been debated whether the term genocide describes these atrocities well. The journalist Adam Hochschild, writing in King Leopold's Ghost, stated that the level of killing in the Congo was of a "genocidal proportion", but did not consider it a genocide as, according to Hochschild, King Leopold's aim was not the extermination of the Congolese people.[132]
Raphael Lemkin considered the crimes in the Congo to be an unambiguous case of genocide.[133]Robert Weisbord wrote in the Journal of Genocide Research in 2003 that attempting to eliminate a portion of the population is enough to qualify as genocide under the UN convention,[134] this has more recently been supported by historian Dean Pavlakis, who argues that the atrocities in the Congo Free State meet the requisite criteria of the UN Genocide Convention.[135] Reports of the atrocities led to a major international scandal in the early 20th century, and Leopold was ultimately forced in 1908 by the Belgian government to relinquish control of the colony to the civil administration.[136][137]
Ethiopia under Menelik II (1889–1913)
During its military conquests, its centralization of its power and its incorporation of territories into Ethiopia as decreed by Menelik II, his army committed genocidal[138][139] atrocities against civilians and combatants which included torture, mass killings and the imposition of large scale slavery.[140][139] Large scale atrocities were also committed against the Dizi people and the people of the Kaficho kingdom.[141][full citation needed][142] Some estimates of the number of people who were killed in the atrocities that were committed during the war and the famine which coincided with it go into the millions.[140][143] According to Alexander Bulatovich, Menelik's Russian military aide, Menelik's armies "dreadfully annihilated more than half" of the Oromo (Galla) population down to 5 million people, which "took away from the Galla all possibility of thinking about any sort of uprising."[144][pageneeded] Eshete Gemeda put the death toll even higher at 6 million.[145]
These deaths may have also been caused by the great famine, which lasted from 1888 to 1892 and was the worst famine in the region's history; a third of Ethiopia's total population of 12 million was killed according to some estimates.[146] The famine was caused by rinderpest, an infectious viral cattle disease which wiped out most of the national livestock, killing over 90% of the cattle. The population of native cattle had no prior exposure to the disease and as a result, it was unable to fight it off.[147] Despite the violence of the conquest, some historians stress the fact that before the centralization process was completed, Ethiopia was devastated by numerous wars which started in the 16th century. In the intervening period, military tactics had not changed much. In the 16th century, the Portuguese Bermudes documented depopulation and widespread atrocities against civilians and combatants (atrocities which included torture, mass killings and the imposition of large scale slavery) during several successive Aba Gedas' Gadaa conquests of territories which were located north of the Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).[148][149] Warfare in the region essentially involved acquiring cattle and slaves, winning additional territories, gaining control of trade routes and carrying out ritual requirements or securing trophies to prove masculinity.[150] Wars were fought between people who might be members of the same linguistic group, religion and culture, or between unrelated tribes. Centralization greatly reduced these continuous wars; minimizing the loss of lives, raids, destruction and slavery that had previously been the norm.[151][152]
By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830. A long shadow of genocidal hatred persisted, provoking a French author to protest in 1882 that in Algeria, "we hear it repeated every day that we must expel the native and if necessary destroy him." As a French statistical journal urged five years later, "the system of extermination must give way to a policy of penetration."[154]
Historian William Gallois argues that using a variety of frameworks, the conquest of Algeria should be considered a case of genocide.[155]
The Maji Maji Rebellion (German: Maji-Maji-Aufstand, Swahili: Vita vya Maji Maji), was an armed rebellion of Africans against German colonial rule in German East Africa. The war was triggered by German colonial policies which were designed to force the indigenous population to grow cotton for export. The war lasted from 1905 to 1907, during which 75,000 to 300,000 died, overwhelmingly from famine.[158] The end of the war was followed by a period of famine, known as the Great Hunger (ukame), caused in large part by the scorched-earth policies used by governor von Götzen to suppress the rebellion. These tactics have been described by scholars as genocidal.[159][160]
Identified as the first genocide of the 20th century,[161] the Herero and Namaqua peoples of present-day Namibia endured a genocidal persecution between 1904 and 1907 while their homeland was under colonial rule as German South West Africa.[162][163] Large percentages of their populations perished in a brutal scorched earth campaign led by German General Lothar von Trotha.[164] An estimated 10,000 Nama were killed,[165] with estimates for the Herero ranging from 60,000 and 100,000.[166] Historian Leonor Faber-Jonker highlights how genocidal violence in German South-West Africa was built up to with ever more eterminatory wars during the late 19th century.[167]
Beginning as an insurrection against German colonial rule,[168][169] the Herero Wars almost immediately developed into a genocide of the indigenous insurrectionists, with Trotha issuing his Extermination Order in October 1904, a copy of which survives in the Botswana National Archives. The order states "every Herero, with or without a gun, with or without cattle, will be shot. I will no longer accept women or children, I will drive them back to their people [to die in the desert] or let them be shot at."[170] Olusoga and Erichsen write: "It is an almost unique document: an explicit, written declaration of intent to commit genocide."[171] Trotha further explained that the German response to the indigenous insurrection "is and remains the beginning of a racial struggle".[172]
Many of those not killed were moved to concentration camps, such as Shark Island, after the destruction of their villages, where many succumbed to starvation.[164] These concentration camps were also the location of medical experiments by German eugenicists such as Eugen Fischer.[173]
Between 1810 and 1828, the Zulu kingdom under Shaka Zulu and Dingane laid waste to large parts of present-day South Africa and Zimbabwe.[174] Frequently, Zulu armies not only aimed to defeat their enemies, they aimed to totally destroy them. Those who were exterminated included prisoners of war, women, children and even dogs.[175] Estimates of the death toll range from 1 million to 2million.[176]
According to historian David Stannard, over the course of more than four centuries "from the 1490s into the 1890s, Europeans and white Americans engaged in an unbroken string of genocide campaigns against the native peoples of the Americas." Stannard writes that the native population had been reduced savagely by invasions of European plague and violence and that by around 1900 only one-third of one percent of America's population—250,000 out of 76,000,000 people–were natives. He calls it "the worst human holocaust the world had ever witnessed", and it leveled off because "there was, at last, almost no one left to kill."[181] On 20 January 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa wrote to the king advocating genocide against the native population in the Caribbean. Balboa slew hundreds in Caribbean villages. The crown later withdrew support and Balboa was executed in 1519.[182]
Raphael Lemkin considered colonial abuses of the Native population of the Americas to constitute cultural and even outright genocide including the abuses of the Encomienda system. He described slavery as "cultural genocide par excellence" noting "it is the most effective and thorough method of destroying culture, of desocializing human beings." He considers colonists guilty due to failing to halt the abuses of the system despite royal orders. He also notes the sexual abuse by Spanish colonizers of Native women as acts of "biological genocide."[183][184] In this vein, Stannard described the encomienda as a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths."[185]
Anthropologist Jason Hickel asserts that during Spanish rule of Hispaniola, many Arawaks died from lethal forced labour in the mines, in which a third of workers died every six months and that within two years of the arrival of Christopher Columbus half the population of Hispaniola had been killed.[186] According to anthropologist Russell Thornton, for the American Indians "the arrival of the Europeans marked the beginning of a long holocaust, although it came not in ovens, as it did for the Jews. The fires that consumed North America Indians were the fevers brought on by newly encountered diseases, the flashes of settlers' and soldiers' guns, the ravages of 'firewater,' the flames of villages and fields burned by the scorched-earth policy of vengeful Euro-Americans."[187] Some authors, including Holocaust scholarDavid Cesarani, have argued that United States government policies in furtherance of its so-called Manifest Destiny constituted genocide.[188]
Some historians disagree that genocide, defined as a crime of intent, should be used to describe the colonization experience. Stafford Poole, a research historian, wrote: "There are other terms to describe what happened in the Western Hemisphere, but genocide is not one of them. It is a good propaganda term in an age where slogans and shouting have replaced reflection and learning, but to use it in this context is to cheapen both the word itself and the appalling experiences of the Jews and Armenians, to mention but two of the major victims of this century."[189] Noble David Cook, writing about the Black Legend and the conquest of the Americas, wrote that "there were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact". He instead estimates that the death toll was caused by diseases like smallpox,[190] which according to some estimates had an 80–90% fatality rate in Native American populations.[191] Political scientist Guenter Lewy says "even if up to 90 percent of the reduction in Indian population was the result of disease, that leaves a sizable death toll caused by mistreatment and violence"; however, he rejected calling it genocide stating that
the sad fate of America's Indians represents not a crime but a tragedy, involving an irreconcilable collision of cultures and values. Despite the efforts of well-meaning people in both camps, there existed no good solution to this clash. The Indians were not prepared to give up the nomadic life of the hunter for the sedentary life of the farmer. The new Americans, convinced of their cultural and racial superiority, were unwilling to grant the original inhabitants of the continent the vast preserve of land required by the Indians' way of life. The consequence was a conflict in which there were few heroes, but which was far from a simple tale of hapless victims and merciless aggressors. To fling the charge of genocide at an entire society serves neither the interests of the Indians nor those of history.[192]
Historian Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz opposes these viewpoints and says, "Proponents of the default position emphasize attrition by disease despite other causes equally deadly, if not more so. In doing so they refuse to accept that the colonization of America was genocidal by plan, not simply the tragic fate of populations lacking immunity to disease. In the case of the Jewish Holocaust, no one denies that more Jews died of starvation, overwork, and disease under Nazi incarceration than died in gas ovens, yet the acts of creating and maintaining the conditions that led to those deaths clearly constitute genocide."[193]
Historian Andrés Reséndez argues that even though the Spanish were aware of the spread of smallpox, they made no mention of it until 1519, a quarter century after Columbus arrived in Hispaniola.[194] Instead he contends that enslavement in gold and silver mines was the primary reason why the Native American population of Hispaniola dropped so significantly.[195][194] and that even though disease was a factor, the native population would have rebounded the same way Europeans did following the Black Death if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to.[194] He contends that enslavement of Native Americans was one of the causes of their depopulation in North America;[194] that the majority of the Native Americans enslaved were women and children compared to the enslavement of Africans which mostly targeted adult males and in turn they were sold at a 50% to 60% higher price,[196] and that 2,462,000 to 4,985,000 Native Americans were enslaved between Columbus's arrival and 1900 throughout the Americas.[197][196]
Several films and books on the subject were released around the year 1992 to coincide with the 500th anniversary of Columbus' voyage. In 2003, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez urged Latin Americans not to celebrate the Columbus Day holiday. Chavez blamed Columbus for spearheading "the biggest invasion and genocide ever seen in the history of humanity."[198]
According to scientists from University College London, the colonization of the Americas caused so much disease and death in the 100 years after 1492, that it contributed to climate change and global cooling. The depopulation caused the abandonment and reforestation of large areas of farmland, resulting in large enough decreases in carbon dioxide to cool the earth.[199][200]
Contemporary sources indicate that it was a deliberate genocide by the Argentine government,[202] with Argentine troops committing mass executions, reports of nations being "wiped out of existence", and those not killed were often deported from Patagonia.[203] Others perceived the campaign as intending to suppress only groups of indigenous people that refused to submit to the government and carried out attacks on European settlements.[204][205][206]
Argentina and Chile
The Selk'nam genocide was the systematic extermination of the Selk'nam people, one of the four indigenous peoples of Tierra del Fuego archipelago, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[207][208] Historians estimate that the genocide spanned a period of between ten and twenty years, and resulted in the decline of the Selk'nam population from approximately 4,000 people during the 1880s to a few hundred by the early 1900s.[209][210]
As part of the broader Beaver Wars, between 1640 and 1649, among the Indigenous peoples in Canada, the Iroquois conducted a genocidal war against the Huron people.[211] Settlements were burned, and of the 30,000 Hurons, a few thousand were able to flee and avoid becoming victims of the ethnic genocide.[212][213]Ned Blackhawk, in analysing the war between the Iroquois and Huron, found that the Iroquois committed all five acts described in the 1948 Genocide Convention.[214]
The Beothuks attempted to avoid contact with Europeans in Newfoundland by moving from their traditional settlements,[215] into ecosystems unable to support them, causing under-nourishment and, eventually, starvation.[216][217] The Beothuks' main food sources were caribou, fish, and seals; their forced displacement deprived them of two of these. This led to the over-hunting of caribou, leading to a decrease in the caribou population in Newfoundland. The Beothuks emigrated from their traditional land and lifestyle, attempting to avoid contact with Europeans,[215] into ecosystems unable to support them, causing under-nourishment and, eventually, starvation.[216] Scholars disagree in their definition of genocide in relation to the Beothuk.[218] While some scholars believe that the Beothuk died out as an unintended consequence of European colonization, others argue that Europeans conducted a sustained campaign of genocide against them.[219][220] They were officially declared "extinct" after the death of Shanawdithit in 1829 in the capital, St. John's, where she had been taken.[221]
St. Paul's Indian Industrial School, Middlechurch, Manitoba, 1901
Beginning in 1874 and lasting until 1996,[222] the Canadian government, in partnership with the dominant Christian Churches,[223] ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for Aboriginal children, who were forcibly taken from their homes.[224][225] Over the course of the system's existence, about 30% of native children, or roughly 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally; at least 6,000 of these students died while in attendance.[226][227] While the schools provided some education, they were plagued by under-funding, disease, abuse, and sexual abuse.[228][229] The negative effects of the residential school system have long been accepted almost unanimously among scholars researching the residential school system, with debate focussing on the motives and intent.[230]
Indigenous people of Canada have long referred to the residential school system as genocide,[231][232][233] with scholars referring to the system as genocidal since the 1990s.[234] According to some scholars, the Canadian government's laws and policies, including the residential school system, that encouraged or required Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a Eurocentric society, violated the United NationsGenocide Convention that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952.[235][236] Therefore, these scholars believe that Canada could be tried in international court for genocide.[237][238] Others also point to the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which was adopted into Canadian law in 2010, where article 7 discusses the rights of indigenous people to not be subjected to genocide or "any other act of violence, including forcibly removing children of the group to another group".[239]
Haiti
Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the first ruler of an independent Haiti, ordered the killing of the white population of French creoles on Haiti,[240][241] which culminated in the 1804 Haitian massacre.[242][243][244] According to Philippe Girard, "when the genocide was over, Haiti's white population was virtually non-existent."[245]
Hispaniola
The Taíno genocide refers to the extermination of the indigenous population of Hispaniola due to forced labor and exploitation by the Spanish.[246] Raphael Lemkin considered Spain's abuses of the native population of the Americas to constitute cultural and even outright genocide including the abuses of the encomienda system.[183]University of Hawaii historian David Stannard describes the encomienda as a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths."[185] Yale University's genocide studies program supports this view regarding the abuses in Hispaniola.[246] Andrés Reséndez argues that even though the Spanish were aware of the spread of smallpox, they made no mention of it until 1519, a quarter century after Columbus arrived in Hispaniola.[194] Instead he contends that enslavement in gold and silver mines was the primary reason why the Native American population of Hispaniola dropped so significantly[195][194] and that even though disease was a factor, the native population would have rebounded the same way Europeans did during the Black Death if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to.[194] According to anthropologist Jason Hickel, a third of Arawak workers died every six months from lethal forced labor in the mines.[186] Conley and de Waal highlight the weaponisation of starvation employed by conquistadors against the Taíno as being a contributing factor to the genocide,[247] and historian Harald E. Braun highlight Jaragua massacre in 1503 as a case of genocidal massacre.[248]
Mexico
Yucatán
Graph of population decline in central Mexico caused by successive epidemics
The Caste War of Yucatán (approx. 1847–1901) against the population of European descent, known locally as Yucatecos, who held political and economic control of the region. Adam Jones wrote: "Genocidal atrocities on both sides cost up to 200,000 killed".[249]
Apaches
In 1835, Don Ignacio Zuniga, commander of the presidios of northern Sonora, asserted that since 1820, the Apaches had killed at least 5,000 Mexican settlers in retaliation for land encroachments in Apachería. The State of Sonora then offered a bounty on Apache scalps in 1835. Beginning in 1837, the State of Chihuahua also offered a bounty of 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman and 25 pesos per child.[250]
The Mexican government's response to the various uprisings of the Yaqui tribe have been likened to genocide particularly under Porfirio Diaz.[251] By the end of Diaz's rule at least 20,000 Yaquis were killed in Sonora and their population was reduced from 30,000 to 7,000.[252][253] Mexican president Andrés Manuel López Obrador said he'd be willing to offer apologies for the abuses in 2019.[254]
The Pequot War was an armed conflict that started in 1636 and ended in 1638 in New England, between the Pequot tribe and an alliance of the colonists from the Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Saybrook colonies and their allies from the Narragansett and Mohegan tribes.[255] The war concluded with the decisive defeat of the Pequot. At the end, about 700 Pequots had been killed or taken into captivity.[256][257] Hundreds of prisoners were sold into slavery to colonists in Bermuda or the West Indies;[258] other survivors were dispersed as captives to the victorious tribes. Scholars such as Michael Freeman and Benjamin Madley have concluded that the war was genocidal in nature,[259] with Madley arguing that it set a precedent for colonial relations with Native Americans going forward.[260]
The leader of this battle, British High Commander Jeffery Amherst authorized the intentional use of disease as a biological weapon, notably during the 1763 Siege of Fort Pitt against indigenous populations, saying, "You will Do well to try to Innoculate the Indians by means of Blankets, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race.", and instructing his subordinates, "I need only Add, I Wish to Hear of no prisoners should any of the villains be met with arms."[273][274][275] British militia's William Trent and Simeon Ecuyer gave smallpox-exposed blankets to Native American emissaries as gifts during the Siege of Fort Pitt, "to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians", in one of the most famously documented cases of germ warfare. While it is uncertain how successful such attempts were against the target population,[276] historians have noted that, "history records numerous instances of the French, the Spanish, the British, and later on the American, using smallpox as an ignoble means to an end. For smallpox was more feared by the Indian than the bullet: he could be exterminated and subjugated more easily and quickly by the death-bringing virus than by the weapons of the white man."[277]
President Abraham Lincoln approved the mass execution of 38 Dakota Native Americans convicted in Minnesota following the Dakota War of 1862
During the American Indian Wars, the United States Army carried out a number of massacres and forced relocations of Indigenous peoples, acts that some scholars say constitute genocide. The Sand Creek massacre, which caused outrage in its own time, has been called genocide. General John Chivington led a 700-man force of Colorado Territorymilitia in a massacre of 70–163 peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho, about two-thirds of whom were women, children, and infants. Chivington and his men took scalps and other body parts as trophies, including human fetuses and male and female genitalia.[278] In defense of his actions Chivington stated,
Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians! ... I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under God's heaven to kill Indians. ... Kill and scalp all, big and little; nits make lice.
A study by Gregory Michno concluded that of 21,586 tabulated casualties (killed, wounded or captured) in a selected 672 battles and skirmishes, military personnel and settlers accounted for 6,596 (31%), while indigenous casualties totalled about 14,990 (69%) for the period 1850–90. Michno's study almost exclusively uses Army estimates. His follow-up book "Forgotten Battles and Skirmishes" covers over 300 additional fights not included in these statistics.[280]
According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), between 1789 and 1891, "The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate..."[281][pageneeded] In the same 1894 report, the Census Bureau dismissed assertions that millions of Native Americans once inhabited what is now the United States, insisting instead that North America in 1492 was an almost empty continent, and "guesstimating" that aboriginal populations "could not have exceeded much over 500,000", whereas modern scholarship now estimates from 2.1million to more than 10 million.[282][283]
Walkway map at the Cherokee Removal Memorial Park in Tennessee depicting the routes of the Cherokee on the Trail of Tears, June 2020
Chalk and Jonassohn argued that the deportation of the Cherokee tribe along the Trail of Tears would almost certainly be considered an act of genocide today.[284] The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the exodus. About 17,000 Cherokees—along with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaves—were removed from their homes.[285] The number of people who died as a result of the Trail of Tears has been variously estimated. American doctor and missionary Elizur Butler, who made the journey with one party, estimated 4,000 deaths.[286] Historians David Stannard[287] and Barbara Mann[288] have noted that the army deliberately routed the march of the Cherokee to pass through areas of known cholera epidemic, such as Vicksburg. Stannard estimates that during the forced removal from their homelands, following the Indian Removal Act signed into law by President Andrew Jackson in 1830, 8,000 Cherokee died, about half the total population.[287]
A smallpox epidemic struck the Great Plains in 1836–1840, resulting in the deaths of many, including 90% of the Mandan who previously numbered 1,600. While specific responsibility for the epidemic remains in question, scholars have asserted that the Great Plains epidemic was "started among the tribes of the upper Missouri River by failure to quarantine steam boats on the river",[277] and Captain Pratt of the St. Peter "was guilty of contributing to the deaths of thousands of innocent people. The law calls his offense criminal negligence. Yet in light of all the deaths, the almost complete annihilation of the Mandans, and the terrible suffering the region endured, the label criminal negligence is benign, hardly befitting an action that had such horrendous consequences."[289] Archaeologist and anthropologist Ann F. Ramenofsky writes, "Variola Major can be transmitted through contaminated articles such as clothing or blankets. In the nineteenth century, the U. S. Army sent contaminated blankets to Native Americans, especially Plains groups, to control the Indian problem."[290] According to Alexander Hinton, "the genocide of many Native American tribes" including the Mandans, was caused by "governmental assimilationist policies that coexisted with officially or unofficially sanctioned campaigns of war to eradicate, diminish, or forcibly evict the 'savages'".[291] When smallpox swept the northern plains of the US in 1837, Secretary of War Lewis Cass ordered that the Mandan (along with the Arikara, the Cree, and the Blackfeet) not be given smallpox vaccinations, which had been provided to other tribes in other areas. Some have posited that some tribes weren't given vaccines because they were hostile or because their land wasn't important for trading.[292][293][294]
The U.S. colonization of California started in earnest in 1849, and it resulted in a large number of state-subsidized massacres of the Indigenous peoples of California by colonists in the territory, causing several ethnic groups to be entirely wiped out. In one such series of conflicts, the so-called Mendocino War and the subsequent Round Valley War, the entirety of the Yuki people were brought to the brink of extinction, from a previous population of some 3,500 people to fewer than 100. According to Russell Thornton, estimates of the pre-Columbian Indigenous population of California were at least 310,000, and perhaps as high as 705,000, but by 1849, due to Spanish and Mexican colonization and epidemics this number had decreased to 100,000, and from 1849 to 1890, the indigenous population of California had fallen below 20,000, primarily because of the killings.[295] In An American Genocide, The United States and the California Catastrophe, 1846–1873, historian Benjamin Madley recorded the number of killings of Indigenous Californians that occurred between 1846 and 1873. He found evidence that during this period, at least 9,400 to 16,000 Native Americans were killed by non-Indigenous.[296][297] Most of these killings occurred in more than 370 massacres (defined as the "intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of a battle or otherwise").[298] 10,000 Native Americans were also kidnapped and enslaved.[299] In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide.[300] Newsom said, "That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books."[301]
Indeed, noted children's book author of "The Wizard of Oz", L. Frank Baum, contemporaneously and freely admitted to the definition of genocide—annihilation of a people—as being deliberately intended, in the aftermath of the Wounded Knee massacre and slaughter of the Lakota and their leader Sitting Bull:
"The Whites, by law of conquest, by justice of civilization, are masters of the American continent, and the best safety of the frontier settlements will be secured by the total annihilation of the few remaining Indians. Why not annihilation? Their glory has fled, their spirit broken, their manhood effaced; better that they die than live the miserable wretches that they are."[302]
In line with Dunbar-Ortiz's assessment, historian Preston McBride argues that the American Indian boarding school system meets the same criteria for genocide as was found in investigations into the Canadian Indian boarding school system.[303]
Uruguay
The Massacre of Salsipuedes was a genocidal attack carried out on 11 April 1831 by the Uruguayan Army, led by Fructuoso Rivera, as the culmination of the state's efforts to eradicate the Charrúa from Uruguay.[304][305] According to official reports, 40 were killed and 300 were taken prisoner, with an uncertain number managing to escape.[306]
Abdur Rahman's subjugation of the Hazara ethnic group in the late nineteenth century due to its fierce rebellion against the Afghan king gave birth to an intense feeling of hatred between the Pashtun and the Hazara that would last for years to come.[307] Massive forced displacements, especially in Oruzgan and Daychopan, continued as lands were confiscated and populations were expelled or fled. Some 35,000 families fled to northern Afghanistan, Mashhad (Iran) and Quetta (Pakistan). It is estimated that more than 60%[308] of the Hazara were either massacred or displaced during Abdur Rahman's campaign against them. Hazara farmers were often forced to give up their property to Pashtuns[308] and as a result many Hazara families had to move seasonally to the major cities in Afghanistan, Iran, or Pakistan to find jobs and sources of income.
Mike Davis argues in his book Late Victorian Holocausts that quote; "Millions died, not outside the 'modern world system', but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures. They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism; indeed many were murdered...by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith, Bentham, and Mill."[309]
Famine stricken people during the famine of 1876–78 in Bengal
Davis characterizes the Indian famines under the British Raj, such as the Great Bengal famine of 1770 or the Great Famine of 1876-78 which took over 15 million lives as "colonial genocide". Some scholars, including Niall Ferguson, have disputed this judgement, while others, including Adam Jones, have affirmed it.[310][311] An estimated 165 million people may have died as a result of British colonial policies from 1880 to 1920. This number surpasses the deaths from both World War I and World War II, including The Holocaust.[312][313] During British Rule, strategies such as Divide and Rule, forced labour among other indirect and direct causes resulted in the death of over 100 million Indians[314]
The Dutch conquest of the Banda Islands was a process of military conquest from 1609 to 1621 by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) of the Banda Islands. Judging that Bandanese resistance to Dutch attempts to establish their commercial supremacy in the archipelago had to be crushed once and for all, the VOC Governor-General Jan Pieterszoon Coen wrote a letter to the Heeren XVII on 26 October 1620, stating: 'To adequately deal with this matter, it is necessary to once again subjugate Banda, and populate it with other people.'[315] As proposed, the Heeren XVII instructed him to subjugate the Bandanese and drive their leaders out of the land.[316] This culminated in the Banda massacre, which saw 2,800 Bandanese killed and 1,700 enslaved by the Dutch.[315] Along with starvation and constant fighting, the Bandanese felt they could not continue to resist the Dutch and negotiated a surrender in 1621.[317] Coen expelled the remaining 1,000 Bandanese to Batavia.[317][318] The conquest saw in total the Bandanese population decrease from aroun 15,000 to around 1,000.[319]
The 1740 Batavia massacre (Dutch: Chinezenmoord; French: Meurtre des Chinois, literally the "Murder of the Chinese"; Indonesian: Geger Pacinan, or the "Chinatown Tumult") was a pogrom in which Dutch East Indies soldiers and native collaborators killed ethnic Chinese residents of the port city of Batavia (present-day Jakarta) in the Dutch East Indies. The violence which occurred in the city lasted from 9 October until 22 October 1740, with minor skirmishes continuing to occur outside the city walls into late November.[320] Historians have estimated that at least 10,000ethnic Chinese were massacred; just 600 to 3,000 are believed to have survived.[321][322]
The Dzungar (or known as Zunghar), Oirat Mongols who lived in an area that stretched from the west end of the Great Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia (most of which is located in present-day Xinjiang), were the last nomadic empire to threaten China, which they did from the early 17th century through the middle of the 18th century.[323] After a series of inconclusive military conflicts that started in the 1680s, the Dzungars were subjugated by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644–1911) in the late 1750s.[324] According to Qing scholar Wei Yuan, 40 percent of the 600,000 Zunghar people were killed by smallpox, 20 percent fled to Russia or sought refuge among the Kazakh tribes and 30 percent were killed by the Qing army of Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols.[325][326]
Mongolist Charles Bawden was the first to describe the Qing treatment of the Dzungar as "genocide" in the 1960s.[327] Political scientist Michael E. Clarke, who specialises in the history of Xinjiang, has argued that the Qing campaign in 1757–58 "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people".[328] Historian Peter Perdue has attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to a "deliberate use of massacre" and has described it as an "ethnic genocide".[329] Mark Levene, a historian of genocide,[330] has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".[331]
The Taiping Rebellion was a massive rebellion which was launched by Hong Xiuquan, an ethnic Hakka (a Han subgroup) and the self-proclaimed younger brother of Jesus, who sought to overthrow the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and replace it with a Chinese Christiantheocraticabsolute monarchy which he named the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. One of the bloodiest wars in history and the bloodiest civil war in history, the Taiping Rebellion was marked by genocidal atrocities which were perpetrated by both of the sides which fought in the conflict.
In every area which they captured, the Taiping immediately exterminated the entire Manchu population. In the province of Hunan one Qing loyalist who observed the genocidal massacres which the Taiping forces committed against the Manchus wrote that the "pitiful Manchus", the Manchu men, women and children were executed by the Taiping forces. The Taiping rebels were seen chanting while slaughtering the Manchus in Hefei.[332] After capturing Nanjing, Taiping forces killed about 40,000 Manchu civilians.[333] On 27 October 1853, they crossed the Yellow River in T'sang-chou and murdered 10,000 Manchus.[334]
Since the rebellion began in Guangxi, Qing forces allowed no rebels who spoke its dialect to surrender.[335] Reportedly in the province of Guangdong, it is written that 1,000,000 were executed because after the collapse of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Qing dynasty launched waves of massacres against the Hakkas, that at their height killed up to 30,000 each day.[336][337] These policies of mass murder of civilians occurred elsewhere in China, including Anhui,[338][339] and Nanjing.[340] This resulted in a massive civilian flight and death toll with some 600 towns destroyed[341] and other bloody policies resulting.
The Ainu are an indigenous people in Japan (Hokkaidō).[342] In a 2009 news story, Japan Today reported, "Many Ainu were forced to work, essentially as slaves, for Wajin (ethnic Japanese), resulting in the breakup of families and the introduction of smallpox, measles, cholera and tuberculosis into their communities. In 1869, after the Battle of Hakodate during the Boshin War, the new Meiji government renamed the Republic of Ezo Hokkaido, whose boundaries were formed by former members of the Tokugawa shogunate, and together with lands where the Ainu lived, they were unilaterally incorporated into Japan. It banned the Ainu language, took Ainu lands away, and prohibited the Ainu from engaging in salmon fishing and deer hunting."[343] Roy Thomas wrote: "Ill treatment of native peoples is common to all colonial powers, and, at its worst, leads to genocide. Japan's native people, the Ainu, have, however, been the object of a particularly cruel hoax, because the Japanese have refused to accept them officially as a separate minority people."[344] In 2004, the small Ainu community which lives in Russia wrote a letter to Vladimir Putin, urging him to recognize Japanese mistreatment of the Ainu people as a genocide, something which Putin declined to do.[345]
The Jindandao incident was a rebellion by a Han Chinese secret society called Jindandao (金丹道), which rose in revolt in Inner Mongolia in November 1891 and genocidally massacred 150,000–500,000 Mongols before it was suppressed by government troops in late December.[346][347]
The history of Shi'ism in Kashmir is marked by conflicts and strife, spanning over half a millennium.[348] Incidents of sectarian violence occurred in Kashmir under the rule of Mirza Haider Dughlat,[349] followed by the Mughals (1586–1752), the Afghans (1752–1819), the Sikhs (1819–1845) and the Dogras (1846–1947).[350] A small Shia community has managed to survive in Kashmir until today.
The Massacres of Badr Khan were committed against the Assyrian Christian population of the Ottoman Empire by Kurdish and Ottoman forces between 1843 and 1847, resulting in the slaughter of more than 10,000 indigenous Assyrian civilians who were inhabitants of the Hakkari region, and many thousands more were sold into slavery.[351][352]
During the suppression of the April uprising in Bulgaria in May–June 1876, 30,000 Bulgarians died and 5,000 Bulgarians were killed in Batak – according to modern researchers, the Batak massacre was the starting point of genocide in the modern era.[353]
Between 1894 and 1896, a series of ethnically religiously motivated Anti-Christian pogroms which are known as the Hamidian massacres were committed against the ancient Armenian and AssyrianChristian populations by the forces of the Ottoman Empire.[354][355] The massacres were mainly committed in regions which were located in what is modern-day south eastern Turkey, north eastern Syria and northern Iraq. According to some estimates, as many as 325,000 people were killed,[356][357] and 546,000 Armenians and Assyrians who survived the massacres were made destitute when they were forcibly deported from cities, and almost 2500 of their farmsteads, towns and villages were either destroyed or stolen. Hundreds of churches and monasteries were either destroyed or forcibly converted into mosques.[358]
Belinda A. Aquino describes Spanish colonial rule of the Philippines as one of the "most cruel colonial regimes in world history", characterized by the systematic destruction of native communities and their institutions, while the natives were forced to work on the colonial government's projects. She writes that the Spaniards imposed an alien religion, Catholicism, on the population, while the native people's sacred indigenous religions and shrines were all destroyed. She describes the Spanish conquest as a genocide, with killings of natives being common. Furthermore, she writes that the Spanish continued to view the natives of the Philippines as "savages" and "pagans who had to be civilized" despite the fact that they perpetrated atrocities.[366]
According to Linda A. Newson's research, demographic decline occurred in the Philippines during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, primarily as a result of destructive epidemics which were introduced on the islands during the establishment of the Spanish colonial regime.[367] It was previously assumed that the natives of the Philippines were immune to the diseases which decimated the populations of the New World, but Newson, who used the data which she collected from historical demographic documents, argues that intermittent contact and a low population density prevented the spread of such diseases before the arrival of the Spaniards, thus making them lethal to vulnerable populations.[368] Yet, despite its previous lack of exposure, the diseases which were introduced to the indigenous population of the Philippines were not seen as having an impact which was as great as the impact which they had on the indigenous populations of the New World. Newson also argues that the same factors which kept the diseases at bay before the Spanish conquest also curtailed the spread of the infections during the early years of the Spanish colonial period.[369] Newson also concludes that, for the indigenous population of the Philippines, "the demographic decline which occurred during the seventeenth century was the outcome of a complex interaction of factors which included the Hispano-Dutch War, the restructuring of Filipino communities, and periodic famines, epidemics and Moro raids".[370][371]
Numerous massacres were committed against Filipinos during the American and Japanese occupations of the Philippines, notably, massacres were committed on Samar and Sulu by Americans during the Philippine-American war, and the Manila massacre was committed by Japanese forces during World War 2.[372][373][374]
The Russification of Poland was an intense process, especially under Partitioned Poland, when the Russian state aimed to denationalise Poles via incremental enforcement of language, culture, the arts, the Orthodox religion and Russian practices.[378][379] The most forceful Russification was forced onto children.
The Russian Tsarist Empire waged war against Circassia in the Northwest Caucasus for more than one hundred years, trying to secure its hold on Circassia's Black Sea coast. After a century of insurgency and war and failure to end the conflict, the Russian military executed the systematic mass murder,[380][381][382]ethnic cleansing,[383][384][382]forced migration,[385][386][382] and expulsion[387][388][382] of 800,000–1,500,000 Circassians.[389][390][382] The Georgian government has officially recognized the events as a genocide,[391] as have Circassian advocacy organizations,[392] a stance also held by a plethora of scholars of genocide and other historians,[393] with Oliver Bullough crediting the Russian Empire with "the first modern genocide on European soil",[394] and Anssi Kullberg arguing that the Russian state thus invented "the strategy of modern ethnic cleansing and genocide".[395]Antero Leitzinger flagged the affair the 19th century's largest genocide.[396]
Calculations including those which take the Russian government's own archival figures into account have estimated a loss of 80%–97%[397] of the Circassian nation in the process.
In May 1994, the then Russian PresidentBoris Yeltsin admitted that resistance to the tsarist forces was legitimate, but he did not recognize "the guilt of the tsarist government for the genocide".[398] On 5 July 2005, the Circassian Congress, an organisation that unites representatives of the various Circassian peoples in the Russian Federation, called on Moscow to acknowledge and apologize for the genocide.[399] There is concern by the Russian government that acknowledging the events as genocide would entail possible claims of financial compensation in addition to efforts toward repatriating diaspora Circassians back to Circassia.[400] A presidential commission in Russia has been set up "to counter the attempts to falsify history to the detriment of Russia".[401]
Europe
Anti-Romani sentiment (Attempted extirpations of Romani)
In 1545, the Diet of Augsburg declared that "whosoever kills a Gypsy (Romani), will be guilty of no murder".[402] The subsequent massive killing spree which took place across the empire later prompted the government to step in to "forbid the drowning of Romani women and children".[403]
In England, the Egyptians Act 1530 banned Romani from entering the country and it also required those Romani who were already living in the country to leave it within 16 days. Failure to do so could result in the confiscation of their property, their imprisonment and deportation. The act was amended with the Egyptians Act 1554, which directed that they abandon their "naughty, idle and ungodly life and company" and adopt a settled lifestyle. For those Romani who failed to adhere to a sedentary existence, the Privy council interpreted the act in a way that permitted the execution of non-complying Romani "as a warning to others".[404]
In 1710, Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor, issued an edict against the Romani, ordering "that all adult males were to be hanged without trial, whereas women and young males were to be flogged and banished forever."[405] Additionally, in the kingdom of Bohemia, the right ears of Romani men were to be cut off; in the March of Moravia, their left ears were to be cut off. In other parts of Austria, they would be branded on the back with a branding iron, representing the gallows. These mutilations enabled the authorities to identify the individuals as Romani on their second arrest.[405] The edict encouraged local officials to hunt down Romani in their areas by levying a fine of 100 Reichsthaler on those who failed to do so.[405] Anyone who helped Romani was to be punished by doing forced labor for half a year.[405] The result was mass killings of Romani across the Holy Roman empire.[405] In 1721, Charles VI amended the decree to include the execution of adult female Romani, while children were "to be put in hospitals for education".[405]
In 1749 the Great Gypsy Round-up (Spanish: Gran Redada de Gitanos), also known as the general imprisonment of the Gypsies (prisión general de gitanos), occurred where most of the Roma in the region were arrested, and 12,000 Romani people were killed.[406] Although a majority were released after a few months, many others spent several years imprisoned and subject to forced labor. The raid was approved by the King Ferdinand VI of Spain, and organized by the Marquis of Ensenada, and set in motion simultaneously across Spain on 30 July 1749.[407]
In 1774, Maria Theresa of Austria issued an edict which forbade marriages between Romani. When a Romani woman married a non-Romani man, she had to produce proof of "industrious household service and familiarity with Catholic tenets", a male Rom "had to prove his ability to support a wife and children", and "Gypsy children over the age of five were to be taken away and brought up in non-Romani families."[408]
One morning at the gates of the Louvre, 19th-century painting by Édouard Debat-Ponsan.
The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (French: Massacre de la Saint-Barthélemy) in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations and a wave of Catholicmob violence, directed against the Huguenots (French CalvinistProtestants) during the French Wars of Religion. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Queen Catherine de' Medici, the mother of King Charles IX,[409] the massacre started a few days after the marriage of the king's sister Margaret to the Protestant Henry of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France) on 18 August.[410] Many of the wealthiest and most prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris to attend the wedding.
The massacre began in the night of 23–24 August 1572, the eve of the feast of Bartholomew the Apostle, two days after the attempted assassination of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny,[411] the military and political leader of the Huguenots. King Charles IX ordered the killing of a group of Huguenot leaders, including Coligny, and the slaughter spread throughout Paris. Lasting several weeks in all, the massacre expanded outward to the countryside and other urban centres. Modern estimates for the number of dead across France vary widely, from 6,000[412] to 30,000.[413]
The massacre marked a turning point in the French Wars of Religion. The Huguenot political movement was crippled by the loss of many of its prominent aristocratic leaders, and many rank-and-file members subsequently converted. Those who remained became increasingly radicalized. Though by no means unique, the blood-letting "was the worst of the century's religious massacres".[414] Throughout Europe, it "printed on Protestant minds the indelible conviction that Catholicism was a bloody and treacherous religion".[415]
"There were poor girls, completely naked, hanging from tree branches, hands tied behind their backs, after having been raped. It was fortunate that, with the Blues [Republicans] gone, some charitable passersby delivered them from this shameful torment. Elsewhere, in a refinement of barbarism, perhaps without precedent, pregnant women were stretched out and crushed beneath wine presses....Bloody limbs and nursing infants were carried in triumph on the points of bayonets." – Account of the war by a Vendean abbé[416]
In 1986, Reynald Secher argued that the actions of the French republican government during the revolt in the Vendée (1793–1796), a popular mostly Catholic uprising against the anti-clerical Republican government during the French Revolution, was the first modern genocide.[417][pageneeded] Secher's claims caused a minor uproar in France and mainstream authorities rejected Secher's claims.[418][419]
Mass shootings at Nantes, 1793
Timothy Tackett countered that "the Vendée was a tragic civil war with endless horrors committed by both sides—initiated, in fact, by the rebels themselves. The Vendeans were no more blameless than were the republicans. The use of the word genocide is wholly inaccurate and inappropriate."[420] Historians Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn consider the Vendée a case of genocide,[421] while historian Peter McPhee highlights that using Chalk and Jonassohn's definition the Vendée does not fit a case of "one-sided mass killing".[422] Historian Pierre Chaunu called the Vendée the first ideological genocide,[423] linking it to later examples of totalitarian mass killings.[424] Adam Jones estimates that 150,000 Vendeans died in what he also considers a genocide.[425]
Most of the Jewish communities which existed in the rebellious Hetmanate were devastated by the uprising and the ensuing massacres, though occasionally a Jewish population was spared, notably after the capture of the town of Brody (the population of which was 70% Jewish). According to the book which is titled History of the Rus, Khmelnytsky's rationale for sparing the Jews of Brody was largely mercantile because Brody was a major trading center and as a result, the Jews who lived there were judged to be useful "for turnovers and profits" and based on this assumption, they were only required to pay "moderate indemnities" in kind.[431]
Although many modern sources still give estimates of Jews killed in the uprising at 100,000[432] or more,[433] others put the numbers killed at between 40,000 and 100,000,[434] and recent academic studies have argued fatalities were even lower.
A 2003 study by Israeli demographer Shaul Stampfer of Hebrew University dedicated solely to the issue of Jewish casualties in the uprising concludes that 18,000–20,000 Jews were killed of a total population of 40,000.[435]Paul Robert Magocsi states that Jewish chroniclers of the 17th century "provide invariably inflated figures with respect to the loss of life among the Jewish population of Ukraine. The numbers range from 60,000–80,000 (Nathan Hannover) to 100,000 (Sabbatai Cohen), but that "the Israeli scholars Shmuel Ettinger and Bernard D. Weinryb speak instead of the 'annihilation of tens of thousands of Jewish lives', and the Ukrainian-American historian Jarowlaw Pelenski narrows the number of Jewish deaths to between 6,000 and 14,000".[436]Orest Subtelny concludes:
Between 1648 and 1656, tens of thousands of Jews—given the lack of reliable data, it is impossible to establish more accurate figures—were killed by the rebels, and to this day the Khmelnytsky uprising is considered by Jews to be one of the most traumatic events in their history.[437]
Ireland
Tudor colonisation
Ben Kiernan details how genocidal massacres were employed as a strategy in the colonisation of Ireland during the 16th century.[438][439] The historian David Edwards argues that the Tudor colonisation should not be considered a genocide in line with the popular understanding of genocide,[440] but that the process was a partially exterminatory process.[441]
Towards the end of the War of the Three Kingdoms (1639–1651), the English Rump Parliament sent the New Model Army to Ireland to subdue the Catholic population of the country and take revenge on it and prevent Royalists loyal to Charles II from using Ireland as a base to threaten England from. The force was initially under the command of Oliver Cromwell and later, it was under the command of other parliamentary generals.[442] The Army sought to secure the country, and it also sought to confiscate the lands of Irish families that had participated in the fighting.[442] This policy became a continuation of the Elizabethan policy which encouraged Protestants to settle in Ireland, because the Protestant New Model army's soldiers could be paid with confiscated lands rather than cash.[443]
During the Interregnum (1651–1660), this policy was enhanced with the passage of the Act of Settlement of Ireland in 1652. Its goal was to further the transfer of land from Irish to English hands.[443] The immediate war aims and the longer term policies of the English Parliamentarians resulted in an attempt by the English to transfer the native population to the western fringes to make way for Protestant settlers.[442] during the conquest over 200,000 civilians died due to the destruction of crops, forced displacement, and the mass killing of civilians.[444] The policy of land confiscation and English settlement was reflected in a phrase attributed—without factual foundation—to Cromwell: "To Hell or to Connaught", and the policy has been described as a genocide by some nationalist historians.[445]
During the famine, approximately 1 million people died and a million more people emigrated from Ireland,[446] causing the island's population to fall by between 20% and 25% and leading to the formation of the Irish diaspora.[447] The proximate cause of the famine was a potato disease which is commonly known as potato blight.[448] Although blight ravaged potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, the impact and human cost in Ireland–where one-third of the population was entirely dependent on the potato for food–was exacerbated by a host of political, social, and economic factors that remain the subject of historical debate.[449][450] Contemporary commentators did not believe that the blight was the cause of the mass death, instead, they believed that the mass death was caused by the actions of the British government.[451]
While a small number of historians believe that the Great Famine of Ireland (1845–1852) was a genocide, according to Liam Kennedy, "virtually all historians of Ireland" reject the genocide allegations.[452] Historians Kevin Kenny and Cormac Ó Gráda argue that For a mass-death atrocity to be defined as a genocide, it must include the intentional destruction of a people and that the British government's actions do not meet this requirement.[453][454] Ó Gráda thinks that a case of neglect is easier to sustain than a case of genocide.[455] Historian Donald Akenson, who has written twenty-four books about Ireland, has said the following about the use of the word 'Holocaust' in relation to Ireland: "When you see it, you know that you are encountering famine-porn. It is inevitably part of a presentation that is historically unbalanced and, like other kinds of pornography, is distinguished by a covert (and sometimes overt) appeal to misanthropy and almost always an incitement to hatred."[456]
Ireland's Holocaust a nationalist mural on the Ballymurphy Road, Belfast. "An Gorta Mór, Britain's genocide by starvation, Ireland's holocaust 1845–1849, over 1,500,000 deaths".
In debates in the United States, law professors Charles E. Rice and Francis Boyle provided statements,[457] concluding that the British government deliberately pursued a race- and ethnicity-based policy aimed at destroying the Irish people and that the policy of mass starvation amounted to genocide per retrospective application of article 2 of the Genocide Convention.[458][459]
Writing in 2008, historian Robbie Mcveigh highlighted that while discussions around whether the Great Irish Famine was genocidal in nature have a long history, the tools of genocide analysis were never employed to assess such claims.[460] Scholars highlight the similarity of British policies around and in response to the Irish famine and other cases of famine and starvation in the British empire and colonial regimes,[461][462] with Mcveigh stating in the other cases they "appear not as horrendous imperial incompetence but rather a deliberate administrative policy of genocide", and calls for more rigorous investigation of the history of Ireland in genocide studies.[462] There have been later genocide scholars who support the description of the famine as a genocide.[463] Nat Hill, director of research at Genocide Watch, has stated that "While the potato famine may not fit perfectly into the legal and political definitions of 'genocide', it should be given equal consideration in history as an egregious crime against humanity".[464]
During these wars, hundreds of thousands of Turks and Pomaks fled from their villages and became refugees.[471] The total number of refugees is estimated to be between 400,000 and 813,000.[472][473][pageneeded] The number of Ottoman civilians who were killed is estimated to range from 732,000 to 1,500,000.
Massacres of Albanians in Yugoslavia
The massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars were perpetrated on several occasions by the Serbian and Montenegrin armies and paramilitaries during the conflicts that occurred in the region between 1912 and 1913.[474] During the 1912–13 First Balkan War, Serbia and Montenegro committed a number of war crimes against the Albanian population after expelling Ottoman Empire forces from present-day Albania, Kosovo, and North Macedonia, which were reported by the European, American and Serbian opposition press.[475] Most of the crimes occurred between October 1912 and the summer of 1913. The goal of the forced expulsions and massacres was statistical manipulation before the London Ambassadors Conference to determine the new Balkan borders. 10% of the population of present-day Kosovo (estimated to be 500,000) were victimized,[476] with between 120,000[477][478] and 270,000[479] Albanians being killed.
According to one report published in 2009, in 1789 the British deliberately spread smallpox from the First Fleet to counter overwhelming native tribes near Sydney in New South Wales. In his book An Indelible Stain, Henry Reynolds described this act as genocide.[480] However the majority of scholars disagree that the initial smallpox was the result of deliberate biological warfare and have suggested other causes.[481][482][483]
The Queensland Aboriginal genocide refers to the Queensland frontier that represented the single bloodiest colonial frontier in Australia. Thus the records of Queensland document the most frequent reports of shootings and massacres of indigenous people, the three deadliest massacres on white settlers, the most disreputable frontier police force, and the highest number of white victims to frontier violence on record in any Australian colony.[484] Thus some sources have characterized these events as a Queensland Aboriginal genocide.[485]
The Black War was a period of conflict between British colonists and aboriginal Tasmanians in Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) in the early 19th century. The conflict, in combination with introduced diseases and other factors, had such devastating impacts on the aboriginal Tasmanian population that it was reported that they had been exterminated.[486][pageneeded][487] Historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that by 1830, "Disease had killed most of them but warfare and private violence had also been devastating."[488]Smallpox was the principal cause of aboriginal deaths in the 19th century.[489]
Lemkin and most other comparative genocide scholars present the extinction of the Tasmanian aborigines as a textbook example of a genocide, while the majority of Australian experts are more circumspect.[490][491] Detailed studies of the events surrounding the extinction have raised questions about some of the details and interpretations in earlier histories.[490][492] Curthoys concluded, "It is time for a more robust exchange between genocide and Tasmanian historical scholarship if we are to understand better what did happen in Tasmania."[493]
On the Australian continent during the colonial period (1788–1901), the population of 500,000–750,000 aboriginal Australians was reduced to fewer than 50,000.[494][495] Most were devastated by the introduction of alien diseases after contact with Europeans, while perhaps 20,000 were killed by massacres and fighting with colonists.[494]
Sir Ronald Wilson, a former president of Australia's Human Rights Commission, stated that Australia's program in which 20,000–25,000 Aboriginal children were forcibly separated from their natural families,[496] known as the stolen generations, was genocide. He argued, using statements of intent by the architects of the program, that it was intended to cause the Aboriginal people to die out.[496][497] The program ran from 1900 to 1969.[498] The nature and extent of the removals have been disputed within Australia, with opponents questioning the findings contained in the Commission report and asserting that the size of the Stolen Generation had been exaggerated. The intent and effects of the government policy were also disputed.[496]
In the early 19th century, Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama (local Māori tribes) massacred the Moriori people. The Moriori were the indigenous people of the Chatham Islands (Rekohu in Moriori, Wharekauri in Māori), east of the New Zealand archipelago in the Pacific Ocean. These people lived by a code of non-violence and passive resistance (see Nunuku-whenua), which led to their near-extinction at the hands of TaranakiMāori invaders in the 1830s.[500]
In 1835, some Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama from the Taranaki region of North Island invaded the Chathams. On 19 November 1835, the Rodney, a European ship hired by the Māori, arrived carrying 500 Māori armed with guns, clubs, and axes, followed by another ship with 400 more warriors on 5 December 1835. They proceeded to enslave some Moriori and kill and cannibalise others. "Parties of warriors armed with muskets, clubs and tomahawks, led by their chiefs, walked through Moriori tribal territories and settlements without warning, permission or greeting. If the districts were wanted by the invaders, they curtly informed the inhabitants that their land had been taken and the Moriori living there were now vassals."[501]
A council of Moriori elders was convened at the settlement called Te Awapatiki. Despite knowing of the Māori predilection for killing and eating the conquered, and despite the admonition by some of the elder chiefs that the principle of Nunuku was not appropriate now, two chiefs—Tapata and Torea—declared that "the law of Nunuku was not a strategy for survival, to be varied as conditions changed; it was a moral imperative."[502] A Moriori survivor recalled: "[The Maori] commenced to kill us like sheep.... [We] were terrified, fled to the bush, concealed ourselves in holes underground, and in any place to escape our enemies. It was of no avail; we were discovered and killed—men, women and children indiscriminately." A Māori conqueror explained, "We took possession... in accordance with our customs and we caught all the people. Not one escaped..."[503]
After the invasion, Moriori were forbidden to marry Moriori, or to have children with each other. All became slaves of the invaders. Many Moriori women had children by their Maori masters. A small number of Moriori women eventually married either Maori or European men. Some were taken from the Chathams and never returned. Only 101 Moriori out of a population of about 2,000 were left alive by 1862.[504] Although the last Moriori of unmixed ancestry, Tommy Solomon, died in 1933,[505] several thousand mixed-ancestry Moriori are alive today.[506][507]
↑ By 1951, Lemkin was saying that the Soviet Union was the only state that could be indicted for genocide; his concept of genocide, as it was outlined in Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, covered Stalinist deportations as genocide by default, and differed from the adopted Genocide Convention in many ways. From a 21st-century perspective, its coverage was very broad, and as a result, it would classify any gross human rights violation as a genocide, and many events that were deemed genocidal by Lemkin did not amount to genocide. As the Cold War began, this change was the result of Lemkin's turn to anti-communism in an attempt to convince the United States to ratify the Genocide Convention.[11]
Related Research Articles
Genocide is violence that targets individuals because of their membership of a group and aims at the destruction of a people.
During the Age of Discovery, a large scale colonization of the Americas, involving a number of European countries, took place primarily between the late 15th century and the early 19th century. The Norse explored and colonized areas of Europe and the North Atlantic, colonizing Greenland and creating a short-term settlement near the northern tip of Newfoundland circa 1000 AD. However, due to its long duration and importance, the later colonization by the European powers involving the continents of North America and South America is more well-known.
The Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Tasmanians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832 that precipitated the near-extermination of the indigenous population. The conflict was fought largely as a guerrilla war by both sides; some 600 to 900 Aboriginal people and more than 200 British colonists died.
The term genocidal massacre was introduced by Leo Kuper (1908–1994) to describe incidents which have a genocidal component but are committed on a smaller scale when they are compared to genocides such as the Rwandan genocide. Others such as Robert Melson, who also makes a similar differentiation, class genocidal massacres as "partial genocide".
Population figures for the Indigenous peoples of the Americas before European colonization have been difficult to establish. Estimates have varied widely from as low as 8 million to as many as 100 million, though many scholars gravitated toward an estimate of around 50 million by the end of the 20th century.
Halil Kut, also known as Halil Pasha, was an Ottoman military commander and politician. He served in the Ottoman Army during World War I, notably taking part in the military campaigns against Russia in the Caucasus and the British in Mesopotamia.
Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur (ISBN 978-0300100983) is a 2007 book by Ben Kiernan, who for thirty years has studied genocide and crimes against humanity. In Blood and Soil, Kiernan examines outbreaks of mass violence, including worldwide colonial exterminations and twentieth-century case studies, particularly the Armenian genocide, the Nazi Holocaust, Stalin's mass murders, and the Cambodian and Rwandan genocides. The book won the 2008 gold medal for the best book in History awarded by the Independent Publishers Association. In 2009, Blood and Soil won the German Studies Association's biennial Sybil Halpern Milton Memorial Book Prize for the best book published in 2007 or 2008 dealing with Nazi Germany and the Holocaust in its broadest context, covering the fields of history, political science, and other social sciences, literature, art, and photography. In June 2009, the book's German translation, Erde und Blut: Völkermord und Vernichtung von der Antike bis heute, won first place in Germany's Nonfiction Book of the Month Prize.
The pacification of Algeria, also known as the Algerian genocide, refers to violent military operations between 1830 to 1875 during the French conquest of Algeria, that often involved ethnic cleansing, massacres and forced displacement, aimed at repressing various tribal rebellions by the native Algerian population. Out of an estimated population of 3 million, between 500,000 and 1 million Algerians were killed. During this period, France formally annexed Algeria in 1834, and approximately 1 million European settlers moved to the Algerian colony. Various governments and scholars consider France's actions in Algeria as constituting a genocide.
The genocide of indigenous peoples, colonial genocide, or settler genocide is the elimination of indigenous peoples as a part of the process of colonialism.
The California genocide was a series of genocidal massacres of the indigenous peoples of California by United States soldiers and settlers during the 19th century. It began following the American conquest of California in the Mexican–American War and the subsequent influx of U.S. settlers to the region as a result of the California gold rush. Between 1846 and 1873, it is estimated that U.S. colonizers killed between 9,492 and 16,094 indigenous Californians; up to several thousand were also starved or worked to death. Forced labor, kidnapping, rape, child separation and forced displacement were widespread during the genocide, and were encouraged, tolerated, and even carried out by American officials and military commanders.
The Taíno genocide was committed against the Taíno Indigenous people by the Spanish during their colonization of the Caribbean during the 16th century. The population of the Taíno before the arrival of the Spanish Empire on the island of Hispaniola in 1492, is estimated at between 10,000 and 1,000,000. The Spanish subjected them to slavery, massacres and other violent treatment after the last Taíno chief was deposed in 1504. By 1514, the population had reportedly been reduced to just 32,000 Taíno, by 1565 the number was reported at 200, and by 1802 they were declared extinct by the Spanish colonial authorities. However, descendants of the Taíno continue to live and their disappearance from records was part of a fictional story created by the Spanish Empire with the intention of erasing them from history.
Genocidal intent is the specific mental element, or mens rea, required to classify an act as genocide under international law, particularly the 1948 Genocide Convention. To establish genocide, perpetrators must be shown to have had the dolus specialis, or specific intent, to destroy a particular national, ethnic, racial, or religious group, in whole or in part. Unlike broader war crimes or crimes against humanity, genocidal intent necessitates a deliberate aim to eliminate the targeted group rather than merely displace or harm its members.
Genocide is the intentional destruction of a people in whole or in part. The term was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin. It is defined in Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) of 1948 as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group's conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."
Genocide is the intentional destruction of a people in whole or in part. The term was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin. It is defined in Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) of 1948 as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group's conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."
Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples consists of a claim that has denied any of the multiple genocides and atrocity crimes, which have been committed against Indigenous peoples. The denialism claim contradicts the academic consensus, which acknowledges that genocide was committed. The claim is a form of denialism, genocide denial, historical negationism and historical revisionism. The atrocity crimes include genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and ethnic cleansing.
The historiography of Indigenous genocide is the study of how these type of genocides have been documented and interpreted by historians throughout the colonial age up to today.
The destruction of Native American peoples, cultures, and languages has been characterized as genocide. Debates are ongoing as to whether the entire process or only specific periods or events meet the definitions of genocide. Many of these definitions focus on intent, while others focus on outcomes. Raphael Lemkin, who coined the term "genocide", considered the displacement of Native Americans by European settlers as a historical example of genocide. Others, like historian Gary Anderson, contend that genocide does not accurately characterize any aspect of American history, suggesting instead that ethnic cleansing is a more appropriate term.
Many scholars have argued that the British colonisation of Australia and subsequent actions of various Australian governments and individuals involved acts of genocide against Indigenous Australians. They have used numerous definitions of genocide including the intentional destruction of Indigenous groups as defined in the 1948 United Nations genocide convention, or broader definitions involving cultural genocide, ethnocide and genocidal massacres. They have frequently cited the near extermination of Aboriginal Tasmanians, mass killings during the frontier wars, forced removals of Indigenous children from their families, and policies of forced assimilation as genocidal.
↑ Towner 2011, pp.625–638; Lang 2005, pp.5–17: "On any ranking of crimes or atrocities, it would be difficult to name an act or event regarded as more heinous. Genocide arguably appears now as the most serious offense in humanity's lengthy—and, we recognize, still growing—list of moral or legal violations."; Gerlach 2010, p.6: "Genocide is an action-oriented model designed for moral condemnation, prevention, intervention or punishment. In other words, genocide is a normative, action-oriented concept made for the political struggle, but in order to be operational it leads to simplification, with a focus on government policies."; Hollander 2012, pp.149–189: "... genocide has become the yardstick, the gold standard for identifying and measuring political evil in our times. The label 'genocide' confers moral distinction on its victims and indisputable condemnation on its perpetrators."
↑ Schabas 2009, p.160: "Rigorous examination of the travaux fails to confirm a popular impression in the literature that the opposition to the inclusion of political genocide was some Soviet machination. The Soviet views were also shared by a number of other States for whom it is difficult to establish any geographic or social common denominator: Lebanon, Sweden, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Iran, Egypt, Belgium, and Uruguay. The exclusion of political groups was originally promoted by a non-governmental organization, the World Jewish Congress, and it corresponded to Raphael Lemkin's vision of the nature of the crime of genocide."
↑ Eski, Yarin (2023). "Born of violence: the Neanderthal extinction, genocide and colonization". A Criminology of the Human Species. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
↑ Kurin, Danielle (2023). "Mass Extermination in Prehistoric Andean South America". In Kiernan, Ben; Lemos, Tracy Maria; Taylor, Tristan S. (eds.). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol.I: Genocide in the Ancient, Medieval and Premodern Worlds. Cambridge University Press. pp.572–593. doi:10.1017/9781108493536 (inactive 2 November 2024). ISBN978-1-108-49353-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
↑ Courtieu, Gilles (2019). "Asia 88 BC: A Landmark in Genocide History". Anatolica. XLV: 29–41. doi:10.2143/ANA.45.0.3287000.
↑ Xu, Theresa Ruoxi (19 April 2024). Terror, Trauma, and Crisis: The Asiatic Vespers and (Un)making of Memory in the Late Roman Republic (BA). University of British Columbia. p.2.
1 2 Taylor, J. E. (2012). The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0199554485. Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as is usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction
↑ Mor, Menahem (2016). The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132–136 CE. The Brill Reference Library of Judaism. Brill. p.471. ISBN978-90-04-31463-4.
↑ Ben-Sasson, H. H. (1976). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. p.334. ISBN0-674-39731-2. In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature.
↑ Lewin, Ariel (2005). The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. p.33. ISBN0-89236-800-4. It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name—one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus—Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land.
↑ Taheri-Iraqi, Ahmad. Zandaqa in the Early Abbasid Period with Special Reference to Poetry. University of Edinburgh. p.3. [...] the word zindiq/zandik was initially applied in the Sassanid Empire to the Manichaeans as a pejorative epithet [...]
↑ Taheri-Iraqi, Ahmad. Zandaqa in the Early Abbasid Period with Special Reference to Poetry. University of Edinburgh. p.3. Although the word zindīq/zandik was initially, in the Sassanid Empire, applied to Manichaeans as a pejorative epithet, by the time of the Islamic Epoch its usage had broadened and was loosely applied to Gnostic Dualists, agnostics, atheists, and even to free thinkers and libertines. Eventually in the later period, even up to the present time, 'zindīq' came to be synonymous with 'irreligious'.
Lewis 2023, p.406: "The Harrying is called genocide in a single scholarly work, W. E. Kapelle's The Norman Conquest of the North (1979), but only in the opening salvo of an attention-grabbing first paragraph"
Forbath, Peter (1977). The River Congo: The Discovery, Exploration and Exploitation of the World's Most Dramatic Rivers. Harper & Row. p.278. ISBN978-0-06-122490-4.
1 2 Bulcha, Mekuria (2005). "Genocidal Violence in the Making of Nation and State in Ethiopia". African Sociological Review / Revue Africaine de Sociologie. 9 (2). CODESRIA: 1–54. doi:10.4314/asr.v9i2.23257. JSTORafrisocirevi.9.2.1.
1 2 Hassen, Mohammed (2002). "Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002". Northeast African Studies. 9 (3 Special Issue: The Oromo in Ethiopian Studies: Confronting Challenges to Politically Engaged Scholarship). Michigan State University Press: 15–49. doi:10.1353/nas.2007.0013.
↑ Alemayehu, Kumsa. Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia Charles University in Prague
↑ Haberland, Eike (1983). "An Amharic manuscript on the mythical history of the Adi kyaz (Dizi, south-west Ethiopia)". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 46 (2)). Cambridge University Press: 240–257 [241ff]. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00078836.
↑ Schaller, Dominik J. (2010). "From Conquest to Genocide". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). From Conquest to Genocide: Colonial Rule in German Southwest Africa and German East Africa. Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. War and Genocide. Vol.12 (1sted.). New York City: Berghahn Books. p.310. ISBN978-1-84545-452-4. JSTORj.ctt9qd5qb.16. [I]t is doubtlessly appropriate—probably even important—to understand the German suppression of the Maji-Maji Revolt as genocidal.
Walter, Eugene Victor (1969). Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence, with Case Studies of Some Primitive African Communities. Oxford University Press.[pageneeded]
Charters (1839). "Notices of the Cape And Southern Africa, Since The Appointment, As Governor, Of Major-Gen. Sir Geo. Napier". United Service Journal and Naval and Military Magazine. Vol.Part III. London: W. Clowes and Son. p.24.
↑ McNeill & Pomeranz 2015, p.430: "That said, and ever since the initial Eastern seaboard settler wars against the Tsenacommacahs and Pequots in the 1620s and early 1630s, systematic genocidal massacre was a core component of native destruction throughout three centuries of largely 'Anglo' expansion across continental North America. The culmination of this process from the mid-1860s to mid-1880s ... native Araucanian resistance by the Argentinian and Chilean military in the Southern Cone pampas, primarily in the agribusiness interest. In Australia, too, 'Anglo' attrition or outright liquidation of Aborigines from the time of 'first contact' in 1788 reached its zenith in Queensland in these same decades, as a dedicated Native Mounted Police strove to cleanse the territory of indigenous tribes in favour of further millions of cattle stock. Undoubtedly, in all these instances, Western racism and contempt for natives as 'savages' played a critical role in psychocultural justifications for genocide"
↑ Bloxham & Moses 2010, p.339: "The genocidal intent of California settlers and government officials was acted out in numerous battles and massacres (and aided by technological advances in weaponry, especially after the Civil War), in the abduction and sexual abuse of Indian women, and in the economic exploitation of Indian child labourers."
↑ Blackhawk 2023, pp.27, 38: "More than any other work, Wolfe's seminal 2006 essay, 'Settler colonialism and the elimination of the Native' established the 'centrality of dispossession' to our understandings of Indigenous genocide in the context of settler colonialism. His definition of 'settler colonialism' spoke directly to Genocide Studies scholars"; "With these works, a near consensus emerged. By most scholarly definitions and consistent with the UN Convention, these scholars all asserted that genocide against at least some Indigenous peoples had occurred in North America following colonisation, perpetuated first by colonial empires and then by independent nation-states"
↑ Braun 2023, p.622: "These mass killings represent turning points in the history of the Spanish Atlantic conquest and share important characteristics. Each targeted Amerindian communities. Each was entirely or partially planned and executed by European actors, namely Spanish military entrepreneurs under the leadership of friar Nicolás de Ovando, Hernán Cortés and Pedro de Alvarado respectively. Each event can be described as a 'genocidal massacre' targeting a specific community because of its membership of a larger group"
↑ Canclini, Arnoldo (1980). Congresso nacional de Historia sobre la Conquista del desierto[National Congress of History on the Conquest of the Desert] (in Spanish). Academia Nacional de la Historia (Argentina). p.95. para la colonización el fondo del país, se hizo un raid contra estos pobres inofensivos hijos de la naturaleza y muchas tribus fueron borradas de la existencia. Los argentinos dejaron sueltos los perros de la guerra contra ellos; muchos fueron muertos y el resto – hombres, mujeres y niños – fueron deportados por mar[For the colonization of the country's interior, a raid was made against these poor, harmless children of nature and many tribes were wiped out of existence. The Argentines let loose the dogs of war on them; many were killed and the rest – men, women and children – were deported by sea.]
↑ Charles, Grant; DeGane, Mike (2013). "Student-to-Student Abuse in the Indian Residential Schools in Canada: Setting the Stage for Further Understanding". Child & Youth Services. 34 (4): 343–359. doi:10.1080/0145935X.2013.859903. S2CID144148882.
↑ Robins & Jones 2009, p.1, Introduction: "The indigenous rebellions of Túpac Amaru II and Túpac Katari against the Spanish between 1780 and 1782, cost over 100,000 mestizos, native Peruvians and Spanish settlers' lives in Peru and Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia)."
↑ Shannon, Jennifer (1 September 2014). "The Professionalization of Indigeneity in the Carib Territory of Dominica". American Indian Culture and Research Journal. 38 (4): 29–56. doi:10.17953/aicr.38.4.680p1633v5545v2 (inactive 1 November 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
↑ Henderson, Donald A.; Inglesby, Thomas V.; Bartlett, John G.; Ascher, Michael S.; Eitzen, Edward; Jahrling, Peter B.; Hauer, Jerome; Layton, Marcelle; McDade, Joseph; Osterholm, Michael T.; O'Toole, Tara; Parker, Gerald; Perl, Trish; Russell, Philip K.; Tonat, Kevin (9 June 1999). "Smallpox as a Biological Weapon: Medical and Public Health Management". JAMA. 281 (22): 2127–2137. doi:10.1001/jama.281.22.2127. PMID10367824.
1 2 Stearn, Esther Wagner; Stearn, Allen Edwin (1945). The Effect of Smallpox on the Destiny of the Amerindian. University of Minnesota. pp.13–20, 73–94, 97.
↑ Carter, Samuel, III (1976). Cherokee sunset: A nation betrayed: a narrative of travail and triumph, persecution and exile. New York: Doubleday. p.232. ISBN978-0385067355.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
1 2 Straver, Hans (2018). Vaders en dochters: Molukse historie in de Nederlandse literatuur van de negentiende eeuw en haar weerklank in Indonesië[Fathers and Daughters: Moluccan History in Nineteenth-Century Dutch Literature and Its Resonance in Indonesia] (in Dutch). Hilversum: Uitgeverij Verloren. pp.90–91. ISBN9789087047023. Retrieved 17 June 2020. Om hierin naar behooren te voorzien is het noodig dat Banda t'eenemaal vermeesterd en met ander volk gepeupleerd worde.[To provide for this properly it is necessary that Banda be completely captured and populated with other people.]
↑ Chapters 3–7 of Perdue 2005 describe the rise and fall of the Zunghar state and its relations with other Mongol tribes, the Qing dynasty, and the Russian empire.
↑ Aboona, Hirmis (2008). Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: intercommunal relations on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire. Cambria Press. pp.208–212. ISBN978-1-60497-583-3.
↑ Cleveland, William L. (2000). A History of the Modern Middle East (2nded.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p.119. ISBN0-8133-3489-6.
↑ Kévorkian, Raymond H. (2008). "The Cilician Massacres, April 1909". In Hovannisian, Richard G.; Payaslian, Simon (eds.). Armenian Cilicia. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers. pp.339–369.
↑ Schaller, Dominik J.; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2009). Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies. London: Routledge. ISBN978-0415480123. OCLC263294453.
↑ Aquino, Belinda A.; Alegado, D. T. (1993). The Age of Discovery: Impact on Philippine Culture and Society (Seconded.). Hawaii Correctional Industries.[pageneeded]
↑ Miller, Stuart Creighton (1982). Benevolent assimilation: the American conquest of the Philippines, 1899—1903. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p.220. ISBN0-300-03081-9. Ten days after President McKinley's death, the residents of Balangiga, a tiny village 400 miles southeast of Manila, attacked the local U.S. garrison. While U.S. soldiers ate breakfast, the church bells rang a signal. Filipinos brandishing machetes emerged from their hiding places. Forty-eight Americans, two-thirds of the garrison, were butchered, in what is called the Balangiga massacre. On the orders of General Jacob H. Smith, U.S. troops retaliated against the entire island (600square miles) of Samar where Balangiga is located. The exchange is known because of two courts-martial: one of Waller, who was later court-martialed for ordering or allowing the execution of a dozen Filipino bearers, and the other of Gen. Jacob H. Smith, who was actually court-martialed for giving that order. The jury is out as to what extent that particular order was carried out, because Littleton Waller actually countermanded it to his= own men and said "Captain David Porter, I've had instructions to kill everyone over ten years old. But we are not making war on women =and children, only on men capable of bearing arms. Keep that in mind no matter what other orders you receive." Undoubtedly, some men did commit atrocities regardless of Waller's commands.PBS documentary "Crucible of Empire".
↑ Chem, A. (2016). "The Filipino Genocide". Historical Perspective: Santa Clara University Undergraduate Journal of History, Series II.
↑ Steinvorth, Daniel (22 December 2016). "Jagd auf den Engel Pfau"[Hunting the Angel Peacock]. Neue Zürcher Zeitung (in Swiss High German). ISSN0376-6829. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
Shenfield, Stephen (1999). "The Circassians: A Forgotten Genocide?". In Levene, Mark; Roberts, Penny (eds.). The Massacre in History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.149–162.
↑ Bullough, Oliver (2010). Let Our Fame be Great: journeys among the defiant people of the Caucasus. London: Allen Lane. p.8. In what was the first modern genocide on European soil – fifty years before Turkey's Armenians were butchered, ninety years before the holocaust – perhaps as many as 300,000 Circassians died from hunger, violence, drowning and disease when Russia expelled them from their lands on their final defeat in 1864.
Richmond 2013, p.132: "If we assume that Berzhe's middle figure of 50,000 was close to the number who survived to settle in the lowlands, then between 95 percent and 97 percent of all Circassians were killed outright, died during Evdokimov's campaign, or were deported."
Rosser-Owen, Sarah A. S. Isla. 'The First Circassian Exodus' to the Ottoman Empire (1858–1867), and the Ottoman Response, Based on the Accounts of Contemporary British Observers (MA Near and Middle Eastern Studies). p.16. ... with one estimate showing that the indigenous population of the entire north-western Caucasus was reduced by a massive 94 per cent". Text of citation: "The estimates of Russian historian Narochnitskii, in Richmond, ch. 4, p. 5. Stephen Shenfield notes a similar rate of reduction with less than 10 per cent of the Circassians (including the Abkhazians) remaining. (Stephen Shenfield, "The Circassians: A Forgotten Genocide?", in The Massacre in History, p. 154.)
Lebrun, François (May 1985). "La guerre de Vendée: massacre ou génocide?" [The Vendée War: massacre or genocide?]. L'Histoire (in French) (78). Paris: 93–99., and Lebrun, François (September 1985). L'Histoire (in French) (81). Paris: 99–101.{{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
Petitfrère, Claude (1982). La Vendée et les Vendéens[The Vendée and the Vendéens] (in French). Editions Gallimard/Julliard.
Martin, Voir Jean-Clément (1987). La Vendée et la France[The Vendée and France] (in French). Le Seuil.
Gough, Hugh (1987). "Genocide & the Bicentenary: the French Revolution and the revenge of the Vendée". Historical Journal. 30 (4): 977–988 [987]. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00022433.
↑ Langlois, Claude (1987). "Les héros quasi mythiques de la Vendée ou les dérives de l'imaginaire" [The quasi-mythical heroes of Vendée or the excesses of the imagination]. In Lebrun, F. (ed.). Histoire de France[History of France] (in French). pp.426–434., & Langlois, Claude (June 1988). "Les dérives vendéennes de l'imaginaire révolutionnaire" [The Vendée excesses of the revolutionary imagination]. Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales (in French). 43 (3): 771–797. doi:10.3406/ahess.1988.283518. S2CID163493045.
↑ "Chapter 4". History of the Rus (in Russian). p.80. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023. A po sim" pravilam" i obshirnyy torgovyy gorod" Brody, napolnennyy pochti odnimi Zhidami, ostavlen" v" prezhney svobodѣ i tsѣlosti, yako priznannyy ot" Ruskikh" zhiteley poleznym" dlya ikh" oborotov" i zarabotkov", a tol'ko vzyata ot" Zhidov" umѣrennaya kontributsíya suknami, polotnami i kozhami dlya poshit'ya reyestrovomu voysku mundirov" i obuvi, da dlya prodovol'stvíya voysk" nѣkotoraya provizíya.А по симъ правиламъ и обширный торговый городъ Броды, наполненный почти одними Жидами, оставленъ въ прежней свободѣ и цѣлости, яко признанный отъ Рускихъ жителей полезнымъ для ихъ оборотовъ и заработковъ, а только взята отъ Жидовъ умѣренная контрибуція сукнами, полотнами и кожами для пошитья реестровому войску мундировъ и обуви, да для продовольствія войскъ нѣкоторая провизія.[And according to these rules, the vast trading city of Brody, filled almost exclusively with Jews, was left in its former freedom and integrity, as recognized by the Russian inhabitants as useful for their turnover and earnings, and only a moderate indemnity was taken from the Jews in cloth, linen and leather for sewing to the registered army uniforms and shoes, and some provisions for feeding the troops.]
"Judaism Timeline 1618–1770". CBS News. Archived from the original on 27 December 2023. Retrieved 13 May 2007. Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed
Reiss, Oscar (2004). The Jews in Colonial America. McFarland & Company. pp.98–99. ISBN0-7864-1730-7. The peasants of Ukraine rose up in 1648 under a petty aristocrat Bogdan Chmielnicki. ... It is estimated that 100,000 Jews were massacred and 300 of their communities destroyed.
Midlarsky, Manus I. (2005). The Killing Trap: genocide in the twentieth century. Cambridge University Press. p.352. ISBN0-521-81545-2. Moreover, Poles must have been keenly aware of the massacre of Jews in 1768 and even more so as the result of the much more widespread massacres (approximately 100,000 dead) of the earlier Chmielnicki pogroms during the preceding century.
Gilbert, Martin (1999). Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past. Columbia University Press. p.219. ISBN0-231-10965-2. ... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's Cossack soldiers on the rampage.
Totten, Samuel (2004). Teaching About Genocide: Issues, Approaches, and Resources. Information Age Publishing. p.25. ISBN1-59311-074-X. A series of massacres perpetrated by the Ukrainian Cossacks under the leadership of Bogdan Chmielnicki saw the death of up to 100,000 Jews and the destruction of perhaps 700 communities between 1648 and 1654 ...
Camcastle, Cara (2005). The More Moderate Side of Joseph De Maistre: Views on Political Liberty And Political Economy. McGill-Queen's University Press. p.26. ISBN0-7735-2976-4. In response to Poland having taken control of much of the Ukraine in the early seventeenth century, Ukrainian peasants mobilized as groups of cavalry, and these "cossacks" in the Chmielnicki uprising of 1648 killed an estimated 100,000 Jews.
Tatz, Colin Martin (2003). With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide. Verso Books. p.146. ISBN1-85984-550-9. Is there not a difference in nature between Hitler's extermination of three million Polish Jews between 1939 and 1945 because he wanted every Jew dead and the mass murder 1648–49 of 100,000 Polish Jews by General Bogdan Chmielnicki because he wanted to end Polish rule in the Ukraine and was prepared to use Cossack terrorism to kill Jews in the process?
Weiss, Mosheh (2004). A Brief History of the Jewish People. Rowman & Littlefield. p.193. ISBN0-7425-4402-8. ... massacring an estimated one hundred thousand Jews as the Ukrainian Bogdan Chmielnicki had done nearly three centuries earlier.
↑ Sources estimating more than 100,000 Jews killed:
Waxman, Meyer (2003). History of Jewish Literature Part 3. Kessinger Publishing. p.20. ISBN0-7661-4370-8. This situation changed for the worse in 1648–49, the years in which the Chmelnicki massacres took place. These persecutions, which swept over a large part of the Polish Commonwealth, wrought havoc with the Jewry of that country. Many Jewish communities were practically annihilated by the ruthless Cossack bands, and many more were disintegrated by the flight of their members to escape the enemy... The Jews of the Ukraine, Podolia and Eastern Galicia bore the brunt of the massacres. It is estimated that about two hundred thousand Jews were killed in these provinces during the fatal years of 1648–49.
Clodfelter, Micheal (2002). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999. McFarland & Company. p.56. ...carried out in 1648 and 1649 by the Cossacks of the Ukraine, led by Bogdan Chmielnicki. The anti-Semitic outburst took the lives of from 150,000 to 200,000 Jews.
Garber, Zev; Zuckerman, Bruce (2004). Double Takes: Thinking and Rethinking Issues of Modern Judaism in Ancient Contexts. University Press of America. p.77, footnote 17. ISBN0-7618-2894-X. Between 100,000–500,000 Jews were murdered by the Cossacks during the Chmielnicki massacres.
Chmielnicki, Bohdan (2001–2005). (Sixthed.). The Columbia Encyclopedia. After defeating the Polish army, the Cossacks joined with the Polish peasantry, murdering over 100,000 Jews.{{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)[full citation needed]
Spector, Robert Melvin (2005). World Without Civilization: Mass Murder and the Holocaust, History, and Analysis. University Press of America. p.77. ISBN0-7618-2963-6. In 1648–55 the Cossack under Bogdan Chmielnicki (1593–1657) joined with the Tartars in the Ukraine to rid themselves of Polish rule... Before the decade was over, more than 100,000 Jews had been slaughtered.
Scharfstein, Sol (2004). Jewish History and You. KTAV Publishing House. p.42. ISBN0-88125-806-7. By the time the Cossacks and the Poles signed a peace treaty in 1654, 700 Jewish communities had been destroyed and more than 100,000 Jews killed.
Pasachoff, Naomi E.; Littman, Robert J. (2005). A Concise History Of The Jewish People. Rowman & Littlefield. p.182. ISBN0-7425-4366-8. Finally, in the spring of 1648, under the leadership of Bogdan Chmielnicki (1595–1657), the Cossacks revolted in the Ukraine against Polish Rule. ... Although the exact number of Jews massacred is unknown, with estimates ranging from 40,000 to 100,000 ...
Goldberg, David Theo; Solomos, John (2002). A Companion to Racial and Ethnic Studies. Blackwell Publishing. p.68. ISBN0-631-20616-7. Even when there was mass destruction, as in the Chmielnicki uprising in 1648, the violence against Jews, where between 40000 and 100000 Jews were murdered ...
Clodfelter, Micheal (2002). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999. McFarland & Company. p.56. A lower estimate puts the Jewish pogrom deaths in the Ukraine, 1648–56, at 56,000.
O'Leary, Brendam; McGarry, John (24 November 1995). "Regulating nations and ethnic communities". In Breton, Albert (ed.). Nationalism and Rationality. Cambridge University Press. p.248. ISBN978-0-521-48098-7. Oliver Cromwell offered the Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer. They could go 'To Hell or to Connaught!'
Levene 2005, pp.56―57 "[The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state."
↑ Ó Gráda, Cormac (1995). The Great Irish famine. New Studies in Economic and Social History (illustrated, reprinteded.). Cambridge University Press. pp.4, 68. ISBN978-0-521-55787-0. Archived from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved 7 August 2020. [page 4] While no academic historian continues to take the claim of genocide seriously, the issue of blame remains controversial [page 68]. In sum, the Great Famine of the 1840s, instead of being inevitable and inherent in the potato economy, was a tragic ecological accident. Ireland's experience during these years supports neither the complacency exemplified by the Whig view of political economy nor the genocide theories formerly espoused by a few nationalist historians.
↑ Kenny, Kevin (2003). New directions in Irish-American history. History of Ireland and the Irish diaspora (illustrateded.). University of Wisconsin Press. p.246. ISBN978-0-299-18714-9. And, while few, if any, historians in Ireland today would endorse the idea of British genocide (in the sense of conscious intent to slaughter), this does not mean that government policies, whether adopted or rejected, had no impact on starvation, disease, mortality and emigration.
↑ Ritschel, Dan (1996), The Irish Famine: Interpretive & Historiographical Issues, Department of History, University of Maryland, archived from the original on 21 February 2009, Clearly, during the years 1845 to 1850, the British government pursued a policy of mass starvation in Ireland with intent to destroy in substantial part the national, ethnic and racial group commonly known as the Irish People ... Therefore, during the years 1845 to 1850 the British government knowingly pursued a policy of mass starvation in Ireland that constituted acts of genocide against the Irish people within the meaning of Article II (c) of the 1948 [Hague] Genocide Convention.
King, Neysa (2009). "Rethinking and Recognizing Genocide: The British and the Case of the Great Irish Potato Famine". In Cooley, Dennis R.; Steffen, Lloyd (eds.). Re-Imaging Death and Dying. Inter-Disciplinary Press. pp.123–132. ISBN978-1-904710-82-0.
McGowan, Mark G. (2017). "The Famine Plot Revisited: A Reassessment of the Great Irish Famine as Genocide". Genocide Studies International. 11 (1). University of Toronto Press: 87–104. doi:10.3138/gsi.11.1.04.
↑ Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. pp.65 & 152. ISBN978-1-136-93797-2. Incorporating a global-comparative perspective on the genocide of the last half-millenium has enabled important advances in the understanding of events central to the genocide studies field – such as the process of Ottoman imperial dissolution, reciprocal genocidal killing (during the "Unweaving" in the Balkans)... The human toll of this "Great Unweaving," from Greece's independence war in the early nineteenth century to the final Balkan wars of 1912–1913, was enormous. Hundreds of thousands of Ottoman Muslims were massacred in the secessionist drive…
↑ Ahrens, Geert-Hinrich (2007). Diplomacy on the Edge: Containment of Ethnic Conflict and the Minorities Working Group of the Conferences on Yugoslavia. Woodrow Wilson Center Press. p.291. ISBN9780801885570.
↑ Geshov, Ivan Evstratiev (1919). La genèse de la guerre mondiale: la débâcle de l'alliance balkanique[The Genesis of World War: The Debacle of the Balkan Alliance] (in French). P. Haupt. p.64. Retrieved 9 August 2023. [as for example that of the Serbian deputy Triša Kaclerovićh, who, in an article published in 1917 by the International Bulletin, affirms that in 1912-1913 120,000 Albanians were massacred by the Serbian army]
↑ Rifati, Fitim (2021). "Kryengritjet shqiptare në Kosovë si alternativë çlirimi nga sundimi serbo-malazez (1913-1914)"[Albanian uprisings in Kosovo as an alternative to liberation from Serbian-Montenegro rule (1913-1914)](PDF). Journal of Balkan Studies (in Albanian). 1: 84. doi:10.51331/A004. According to Serbian Social Democrat politician Kosta Novakovic, from October 1912 to the end of 1913, the Serbo-Montenegrin regime exterminated more than 120,000 Albanians of all ages, and forcibly expelled more than 50,000 Albanians to the Ottoman Empire and Albania.
↑ Connor, John (2002), The Australian Frontier Wars, 1788–1838, UNSW Press, p.29
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