Steroid hormone receptor

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Steroid hormone receptors are found in the nucleus, cytosol, and also on the plasma membrane of target cells. They are generally intracellular receptors (typically cytoplasmic or nuclear) and initiate signal transduction for steroid hormones which lead to changes in gene expression over a time period of hours to days. The best studied steroid hormone receptors are members of the nuclear receptor subfamily 3 (NR3) that include receptors for estrogen (group NR3A) [1] and 3-ketosteroids (group NR3C). [2] In addition to nuclear receptors, several G protein-coupled receptors and ion channels act as cell surface receptors for certain steroid hormones.

Contents

A steroid hormone receptor is a protein molecule located either within the cell cytoplasm or nucleus that specifically binds to steroid hormones, such as estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone, leading to the activation or suppression of gene expression and subsequent cellular responses. This interaction is crucial for mediating the physiological effects of steroid hormones in various tissues and organs of the body. [3]

Types

Steroid hormone receptors can be categorized into several types based on their specific ligands and functions:

1.Estrogen Receptors (ER): There are two subtypes, ERα and ERβ, which bind to the hormone estrogen. They regulate gene expression in response to estrogen, playing essential roles in reproductive tissues, bone metabolism, and cardiovascular health.

2. Progesterone Receptors (PR): PRs bind to the hormone progesterone and regulate gene expression in response to its signaling. They are critical for various reproductive processes, including menstruation, pregnancy, and mammary gland development.

3. Androgen Receptors (AR): These receptors bind to androgens such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). They play key roles in the development and function of male reproductive organs, as well as in secondary sexual characteristics and muscle growth.

4. Glucocorticoid Receptors (GR): GRs bind to glucocorticoids like cortisol and regulate gene expression in response to stress and metabolic signals. They are involved in processes such as immune response, metabolism, and stress adaptation.

5. Mineralocorticoid Receptors (MR): MRs primarily bind to mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone and regulate electrolyte balance and blood pressure by controlling ion transport in epithelial cells of the kidney and other tissues. [4]

Nuclear receptors

Steroid receptors of the nuclear receptor family are all transcription factors. Depending upon the type of receptor, they are either located in the cytosol and move to the cell nucleus upon activation, or remain in the nucleus waiting for the steroid hormone to enter and activate them. This uptake into the nucleus is facilitated by nuclear localization signal (NLS) found in the hinge region of the receptor. This region of the receptor is covered up by heat shock proteins (HSPs) which bind the receptor until the hormone is present. Upon binding by the hormone the receptor undergoes a conformational change releasing the HSP, and the receptor together with the bound hormone enter the nucleus to act upon transcription.

Structure

Intracellular steroid hormone receptors share a common structure of four units that are functionally homologous, so-called "domains":

  1. Variable domain: It begins at the N-terminal and is the most variable domain between the different receptors.
  2. DNA binding domain: This centrally located highly conserved DNA binding domain (DBD) consists of two non-repetitive globular motifs [5] where zinc is coordinated with four cysteine and no histidine residues. Their secondary and tertiary structure is distinct from that of classic zinc fingers. [6] This region controls which gene will be activated. On DNA it interacts with the hormone response element (HRE).
  3. Hinge region: This area controls the movement of the receptor to the nucleus.
  4. Hormone binding domain: The moderately conserved ligand-binding domain (LBD) can include a nuclear localization signal, amino-acid sequences capable of binding chaperones and parts of dimerization interfaces. Such receptors are closely related to chaperones (namely heat shock proteins hsp90 and hsp56), which are required to maintain their inactive (but receptive) cytoplasmic conformation. At the end of this domain is the C-terminal. The terminal connects the molecule to its pair in the homodimer or heterodimer. It may affect the magnitude of the response.

Mechanism of action

Genomic

Depending on their mechanism of action and subcellular distribution, nuclear receptors may be classified into at least two classes. [7] [8] Nuclear receptors that bind steroid hormones are all classified as type I receptors. Only type I receptors have a heat shock protein (HSP) associated with the inactive receptor that will be released when the receptor interacts with the ligand. Type I receptors may be found in homodimer or heterodimer forms. Type II nuclear receptors have no HSP, and in contrast to the classical type I receptor are located in the cell nucleus.

Free (that is, unbound) steroids enter the cell cytoplasm and interact with their receptor. In this process heat shock protein is dissociated, and the activated receptor-ligand complex is translocated into the nucleus. It is also related to EAATs.

After binding to the ligand (steroid hormone), steroid receptors often form dimers. In the nucleus, the complex acts as a transcription factor, augmenting or suppressing transcription particular genes by its action on DNA.

Type II receptors are located in the nucleus. Thus, their ligands pass through the cell membrane and cytoplasm and enter the nucleus where they activate the receptor without release of HSP. The activated receptor interacts with the hormone response element and the transcription process is initiated as with type I receptors.

Non-genomic

The cell membrane aldosterone receptor has shown to increase the activity of the basolateral Na/K ATPase, ENaC sodium channels and ROMK potassium channels of the principal cell in the distal tubule and cortical collecting duct of nephrons (as well as in the large bowel and possibly in sweat glands).

There is some evidence that certain steroid hormone receptors can extend through lipid bilayer membranes at the surface of cells and might be able to interact with hormones that remain outside cells. [9]

Steroid hormone receptors can also function outside the nucleus and couple to cytoplasmic signal transduction proteins such as PI3k and Akt kinase. [10]

Other

Steroid hormone receptors exert their effects through several mechanisms, including:

1. Gene Regulation: Upon ligand binding, steroid hormone receptors translocate to the nucleus, where they bind to specific DNA sequences called hormone response elements (HREs) within the regulatory regions of target genes. This binding either activates or suppresses gene transcription, leading to changes in mRNA levels and ultimately protein synthesis.

2. Transcriptional Coactivators and Corepressors: Steroid hormone receptors recruit coactivator or corepressor proteins to the gene promoter regions, which modulate the activity of RNA polymerase and other transcriptional machinery, thereby influencing gene expression.

3. Chromatin Remodeling: Steroid hormone receptors can also induce changes in chromatin structure through the recruitment of chromatin remodeling complexes. This allows for accessibility of the transcriptional machinery to specific gene regulatory regions, facilitating or inhibiting gene transcription.

4. Non-Genomic Signaling: In addition to classical genomic actions, steroid hormone receptors can initiate rapid, non-genomic signaling pathways in the cytoplasm or at the cell membrane. These pathways involve activation of various protein kinases and other signaling molecules, leading to rapid cellular responses such as ion fluxes, cytoskeletal rearrangements, and activation of second messenger systems.

5. Cross-Talk with Other Signaling Pathways: Steroid hormone receptors can also interact with and modulate the activity of other signaling pathways, such as growth factor signaling pathways, thereby integrating hormonal and growth factor signals to regulate cellular processes. [11]

A new class of steroid hormone receptors has recently been elucidated and these new receptors are found on the cell membrane. New studies suggest that along with the well documented intracellular receptors that cell membrane receptors are present for several steroid hormones and that their cellular responses are much quicker than the intracellular receptors. [12]

G protein-coupled receptors

GPCR linked proteins most likely interact with steroid hormones through an amino acid consensus sequence traditionally thought of as a cholesterol recognition and interaction site. About a third of Class A GPCRs contain this sequence. The steroid hormones themselves are different enough from one another that they do not all affect all of the GPCR linked proteins; however, the similarities between the steroid hormones and between the receptors make plausible the argument that each receptor may respond to multiple steroid hormones or that each hormone could affect multiple receptors. This is contrary to the traditional model of having a unique receptor for each unique ligand. [13]

At least four different GPCR-linked proteins are known to respond to steroid hormones. G Protein-Coupled Receptor 30 (GPR30) binds estrogen, Membrane Progestin Receptor (mPR) binds progesterone, G Protein-Coupled Receptor Family C Group 6 Member A (GPRC6A) binds androgens, and Thyroid Hormone and Trace Amine Associated Receptor 1 (TAAR1) binds Thyroid hormone (though not technically steroid hormones, thyroid hormones can be grouped here because their receptors belong to the nuclear receptor superfamily). As an example of the effects of these GPCR-linked proteins consider GPR30. GPR30 binds estrogen, and upon binding estrogen this pathway activates adenylyl cyclase and epidermal growth factor receptor. It results in vasodilation, renoprotection, mammary gland development, etc. [13]

Sulfated steroids and bile acids are also detected by vomeronasal receptors, specifically the V1 family. [14] [15] [16]

Ion channels

Neuroactive steroids bind to and modulate the activity of several ion channels including the GABAA, [17] [18] [19] [20] NMDA, [21] and sigma receptors. [22]

The steroid progesterone has been found to modulate the activity of CatSper (cation channels of sperm) voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. Since eggs release progesterone, sperm may use progesterone as a homing signal to swim toward eggs (chemotaxis). [23] [24]

SHBG/SHBG-R complex

Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) is thought to mainly function as a transporter and reservoir for the estradiol and testosterone sex hormones. However it has also been demonstrated that SHBG can bind to a cell surface receptor (SHBG-R). The SHBG-R has not been completely characterized. A subset of steroids are able to bind to the SHBG/SHBG-R complex resulting in an activation of adenylyl cyclase and synthesis of the cAMP second messenger. [25] Hence the SHBG/SHBG-R complex appears to act as a transmembrane steroid receptor that is capable of transmitting signals to the interior of cells.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hormone</span> Biological signalling molecule

A hormone is a class of signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs by complex biological processes to regulate physiology and behavior. Hormones are required for the correct development of animals, plants and fungi. Due to the broad definition of a hormone, numerous kinds of molecules can be classified as hormones. Among the substances that can be considered hormones, are eicosanoids, steroids, amino acid derivatives, protein or peptides, and gases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Signal transduction</span> Cascade of intracellular and molecular events for transmission/amplification of signals

Signal transduction is the process by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell as a series of molecular events. Most commonly, protein phosphorylation is catalyzed by protein kinases, ultimately resulting in a cellular response. Proteins responsible for detecting stimuli are generally termed receptors, although in some cases the term sensor is used. The changes elicited by ligand binding in a receptor give rise to a biochemical cascade, which is a chain of biochemical events known as a signaling pathway.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Steroid hormone</span> Substance with biological function

A steroid hormone is a steroid that acts as a hormone. Steroid hormones can be grouped into two classes: corticosteroids and sex steroids. Within those two classes are five types according to the receptors to which they bind: glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids and androgens, estrogens, and progestogens. Vitamin D derivatives are a sixth closely related hormone system with homologous receptors. They have some of the characteristics of true steroids as receptor ligands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mineralocorticoid</span> Group of corticosteroids

Mineralocorticoids are a class of corticosteroids, which in turn are a class of steroid hormones. Mineralocorticoids are produced in the adrenal cortex and influence salt and water balances. The primary mineralocorticoid is aldosterone.

A hormone receptor is a receptor molecule that binds to a specific hormone. Hormone receptors are a wide family of proteins made up of receptors for thyroid and steroid hormones, retinoids and Vitamin D, and a variety of other receptors for various ligands, such as fatty acids and prostaglandins. Hormone receptors are of mainly two classes. Receptors for peptide hormones tend to be cell surface receptors built into the plasma membrane of cells and are thus referred to as trans membrane receptors. An example of this is Actrapid. Receptors for steroid hormones are usually found within the protoplasm and are referred to as intracellular or nuclear receptors, such as testosterone. Upon hormone binding, the receptor can initiate multiple signaling pathways, which ultimately leads to changes in the behavior of the target cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Receptor (biochemistry)</span> Protein molecule receiving signals for a cell

In biochemistry and pharmacology, receptors are chemical structures, composed of protein, that receive and transduce signals that may be integrated into biological systems. These signals are typically chemical messengers which bind to a receptor and produce physiological responses such as change in the electrical activity of a cell. For example, GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, inhibits electrical activity of neurons by binding to GABAA receptors. There are three main ways the action of the receptor can be classified: relay of signal, amplification, or integration. Relaying sends the signal onward, amplification increases the effect of a single ligand, and integration allows the signal to be incorporated into another biochemical pathway.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estrogen receptor</span> Proteins activated by the hormone estrogen

Estrogen receptors (ERs) are a group of proteins found inside cells. They are receptors that are activated by the hormone estrogen (17β-estradiol). Two classes of ER exist: nuclear estrogen receptors, which are members of the nuclear receptor family of intracellular receptors, and membrane estrogen receptors (mERs), which are mostly G protein-coupled receptors. This article refers to the former (ER).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex hormone-binding globulin</span> Human glycoprotein that binds to androgens and estrogens

Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) or sex steroid-binding globulin (SSBG) is a glycoprotein that binds to androgens and estrogens. When produced by the Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testis, it is called androgen-binding protein (ABP).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Progesterone receptor</span> Cytoplasmic receptor protein found inside cells

The progesterone receptor (PR), also known as NR3C3 or nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group C, member 3, is a protein found inside cells. It is activated by the steroid hormone progesterone.

In biology, cell signaling is the process by which a cell interacts with itself, other cells and the environment. Cell signaling is a fundamental property of all cellular life in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

The thyroid hormone receptor (TR) is a type of nuclear receptor that is activated by binding thyroid hormone. TRs act as transcription factors, ultimately affecting the regulation of gene transcription and translation. These receptors also have non-genomic effects that lead to second messenger activation, and corresponding cellular response.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estrogen receptor alpha</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), also known as NR3A1, is one of two main types of estrogen receptor, a nuclear receptor that is activated by the sex hormone estrogen. In humans, ERα is encoded by the gene ESR1.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Constitutive androstane receptor</span> Protein-coding gene in humans

The constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) also known as nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group I, member 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NR1I3 gene. CAR is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily and along with pregnane X receptor (PXR) functions as a sensor of endobiotic and xenobiotic substances. In response, expression of proteins responsible for the metabolism and excretion of these substances is upregulated. Hence, CAR and PXR play a major role in the detoxification of foreign substances such as drugs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear receptor</span> Protein

In the field of molecular biology, nuclear receptors are a class of proteins responsible for sensing steroids, thyroid hormones, vitamins, and certain other molecules. These intracellular receptors work with other proteins to regulate the expression of specific genes thereby controlling the development, homeostasis, and metabolism of the organism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear receptor 4A1</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

The nuclear receptor 4A1 also known as Nur77, TR3, and NGFI-B is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NR4A1 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GPER</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER), also known as G protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GPER gene. GPER binds to and is activated by the female sex hormone estradiol and is responsible for some of the rapid effects that estradiol has on cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estrogen-related receptor alpha</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Estrogen-related receptor alpha (ERRα), also known as NR3B1, is a nuclear receptor that in humans is encoded by the ESRRA gene. ERRα was originally cloned by DNA sequence homology to the estrogen receptor alpha, but subsequent ligand binding and reporter-gene transfection experiments demonstrated that estrogens did not regulate ERRα. Currently, ERRα is considered an orphan nuclear receptor.

Nuclear receptor coregulators are a class of transcription coregulators that have been shown to be involved in any aspect of signaling by any member of the nuclear receptor superfamily. A comprehensive database of coregulators for nuclear receptors and other transcription factors was previously maintained at the Nuclear Receptor Signaling Atlas website which has since been replaced by the Signaling Pathways Project website.

Membrane progesterone receptors (mPRs) are a group of cell surface receptors and membrane steroid receptors belonging to the progestin and adipoQ receptor (PAQR) family which bind the endogenous progestogen and neurosteroid progesterone, as well as the neurosteroid allopregnanolone. Unlike the progesterone receptor (PR), a nuclear receptor which mediates its effects via genomic mechanisms, mPRs are cell surface receptors which rapidly alter cell signaling via modulation of intracellular signaling cascades. The mPRs mediate important physiological functions in male and female reproductive tracts, liver, neuroendocrine tissues, and the immune system as well as in breast and ovarian cancer.

Endocrine therapy is a common treatment for estrogen receptor positive breast cancer. However, resistance to this therapy can develop, leading to relapse and progression of disease. This highlights the need for new strategies to combat this resistance.

References

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